tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-74249739476467057062024-02-19T10:32:38.545-05:00Unlearned HistoryA series of articles on topics that your history class in school probably skipped.Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.comBlogger30125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-59324212099932815502017-07-29T17:31:00.000-04:002020-02-07T06:59:26.571-05:00American Revolution PodcastTo anyone who has enjoyed my Unlearned History Project, I am pleased to announce the launch of my American Revolution Podcast. Like the Unlearned History Project, my episodes will be available both as a recorded podcast and in written format. <br />
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This new project will focus exclusively on the American Revolution, going into great detail. I expect it to be a multi-year project with hundreds of episodes. If you have any interest in the American Revolution, I hope you will give it a try. So far, I have just posted a few introductory episodes. For the next couple of months I will be discussing the French and Indian War, which introduces many of the people and issues involved in the Revolution itself. <br />
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Over the past year since I stopped adding new Unlearned History episodes, I have been working diligently to prepare the launch this new project. The preparation time was well worth it, and should help keep me on schedule with regular weekly releases of new episodes.<br />
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I hope you will give it a look and please feel free to provide constructive feedback, positive or negative.<br />
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<a href="https://amrevpodcast.blogspot.com/" target="_blank">Read Written American Revolution Episodes</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://amrev.podbean.com/" target="_blank">Listen to American Revolution Podcast</a><br />
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Thanks.<br />
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<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-8756743839426110832016-09-18T14:55:00.001-04:002017-02-25T17:43:31.561-05:00AnnouncementTo anyone who has been visiting my blog, thank you. For the past few months, I have not had the time to post any new episodes. I have also been recording podcasts of these blog posts with links added to each post.<br />
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The reason for both of these things is that I am planning to launch a new blog / podcast devoted to the American Revolution. This new project will involve me producing a weekly article and podcast following the events of the American Revolution, large and small in chronological order. After a few background articles on the Britain and the colonies I will launch into a series beginning with the French and Indian War, through the pre-war political battles over taxation and colonial rights, into the war itself, and then into the formation of the new Government.<br />
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I expect this new project to involve hundreds of episodes, produced over several years. I hope that anyone looking for an introduction to any Revolutionary war topic, large or small, will find it interesting and useful.<br />
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For the past few months I have been reading and researching the issues that will cover the first episodes of this new project. That has been taking all of my extra time. Perhaps at some point I will get back to posting random articles of historical interest here, but for the foreseeable future most of my time will be devoted to the American Revolution. <br />
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My decision to create recorded podcasts of these articles is mostly a way to help me figure out the technical, acoustic, and editing requirements for a new podcast. As these recordings are mostly for testing purposes, please forgive me if they don't live up to the final standards I hope to have in my new project.<br />
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Thanks again for your interest in my blog. Once I make the new American Revolution Project available online, I'll be sure to include a link to it here.<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-36176276677554120212016-07-03T10:06:00.000-04:002017-04-01T06:52:04.711-04:00History of the Empire State BuildingListen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-04-01T03_27_03-07_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
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The Empire State Building is one of the signature landmarks of New York City. Primarily admired for its height, the Building has a long and interesting history.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqAnex6ybmcunbr7RyEB3OxzRdD9R3y39loe5PjreIdBBN25KHuAsIm1grFn5h9V2p-3EOIarZbOLCTUZSpvtRH8uBnn01dgYXq235cJsL24bsv4_PFICvDzINjKruKFmvT4nMI5clAGgA/s1600/073-EMPIRE_STATE_BUILDING.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqAnex6ybmcunbr7RyEB3OxzRdD9R3y39loe5PjreIdBBN25KHuAsIm1grFn5h9V2p-3EOIarZbOLCTUZSpvtRH8uBnn01dgYXq235cJsL24bsv4_PFICvDzINjKruKFmvT4nMI5clAGgA/s1600/073-EMPIRE_STATE_BUILDING.jpg" /></a>The original land on which the Empire State Building sits was used as farmland until 1859 when John Jacob Astor, Jr. built a mansion there. His brother, William Backhouse Astor, Sr. also built a mansion on another part of the land a few years later.<br />
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William Backhouse Astor's grandson, William Waldorf Astor, tore down his mansion to build the Waldorf Hotel in 1893. His relatives in the mansion next door were not happy about this as they really didn't want to live next to a hotel. A few years later in 1897, after William Backhouse Astor, Jr. died, the family tore down the other mansion and replaced it replaced with the Astoria Hotel, Originally, the Astoria was mostly built to annoy the owner of the Waldorf by creating more competition. Eventually, however, the two hotels were combined into a single complex known as the <a href="http://www.newyork.com/articles/hotels/secrets-of-the-waldorf-astoria-hotel-63985/">Waldorf Astoria</a>.<br />
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By 1918, ownership was a mess. Astoria owner John Jacob Astor IV had died on the <i>Titanic</i> a few years earlier, and Waldorf owner William Waldorf Astor had moved to England to get away from family politics. The family sold the hotel complex and land to Coleman DuPont, a rival hotel owner. Ten years later, DuPont decided to close the hotel and sold the land to the Bethlehem Engineering Group, to build an office building A new Waldorf Astoria Hotel would be build a few years later at another location. It is possible that if Astor had not died on the <i>Titanic</i>, history might have been very different and the Empire State Building never built.<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/The_Waldorf_and_The_Astoria_Hotels,_New_York_City_c1915.jpg/425px-The_Waldorf_and_The_Astoria_Hotels,_New_York_City_c1915.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="178" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/The_Waldorf_and_The_Astoria_Hotels,_New_York_City_c1915.jpg/425px-The_Waldorf_and_The_Astoria_Hotels,_New_York_City_c1915.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Original Waldorf and Astoria Hotels</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The Bethlehem Engineering Group did not have any particularly exciting plans for the new building. They planned to build a 25 story office building. The Group ended up having money troubles and the bank took back the property. It was then resold in 1929 to Empire State, Inc. A group founded by former GM executive John Jakob Raskob, former Waldorf owner Coleman DuPont, and others. Former NY Gov. Alfred Smith headed the corporation.<br />
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Despite lofty plans, the new team got to work on the new construction project with amazing speed. The architect William F. Lamb produced plans for the building in two weeks, basing their drawings on the Reynolds building on North Carolina. They even had to deal with some not insignificant changes, such as increasing the building from 80 stories to 102.<br />
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Not even the Great Depression, which began in October 1929, slowed down progress. The investors apparently had wisely sheltered their investment capital from the market crash. In fact, the Depression actually reduced building costs as construction workers and others could be hired for much lower wages. Total cost of the building was just under $41 million, and $24.7 million of that was for the building materials. In inflation adjusted dollars that would be about $637 million.<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjj3UYFgfkjPCufpNF5nzi49vujb9sMolF3oU-iuDtptkw_Kz8raL0B7n-_ItZTzpgT_k78iL2BiewYlEilJ1_cXNJkE9Yua_ldFgJGCJHcls4U27snchv8ijk5qbsmw6uaKlxfc7Acazzc/s1600/150814-004-554A4CCD.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjj3UYFgfkjPCufpNF5nzi49vujb9sMolF3oU-iuDtptkw_Kz8raL0B7n-_ItZTzpgT_k78iL2BiewYlEilJ1_cXNJkE9Yua_ldFgJGCJHcls4U27snchv8ijk5qbsmw6uaKlxfc7Acazzc/s320/150814-004-554A4CCD.jpg" width="254" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Construction at about the 40th floor</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Construction moved at an alarming pace, 4 1/2 stories per week. Construction began in March 1930 and was complete by April 1931. The construction crew of nearly 4000 workers assembled 57,000 tons of steel columns and beams, poured 62,000 cubic yards of concrete, and installed 6,400 windows, and 67 elevators in 7 miles of shafts. Five were killed during construction. On May 1, the Empire State Building officially opened for business. By comparison it took four months longer to renovate the Building's lobby in 2008.<br />
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The Building was the tallest building in the world at the time. Its builders thought it would contribute to a futuristic world. The top of the building was designed to be a dock for dirigibles. People could fly into New York, dock at the top of the Building without worrying about a place to land, and simply take an elevator down to the center of the city. Sadly, this plan never worked. Winds hitting the side of the building created updrafts that prevented dirigibles from docking safely. Those plans had to be scrapped.<br />
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Although construction was a great success, the Building itself was a financial failure for many years. The Building itself was popular, but it was too far from the business district and nowhere near major transportation hubs. Often derided as the "Empty State Building" many of its floors went unoccupied. In its first year, the Building made more money from tickets to its observatory than it collected in rent. It was not until well after WWII that the building got close to full occupancy and became profitable. The owners sold the Building at a loss for $34 million in 1951.<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiGw70FoE1U3SR8j57GI09VvQDX5vwQrKP3qsiPsAvGkT8LATO5piloXdsHJefKoegIgjhmP42E92mF8Pp4S-vnI7fhBWBVUU4G6sxA-triFSKz9vadzOLola4f01nkT_gj7GnpE0Xs9u4/s1600/Empirestate540.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiGw70FoE1U3SR8j57GI09VvQDX5vwQrKP3qsiPsAvGkT8LATO5piloXdsHJefKoegIgjhmP42E92mF8Pp4S-vnI7fhBWBVUU4G6sxA-triFSKz9vadzOLola4f01nkT_gj7GnpE0Xs9u4/s320/Empirestate540.jpg" width="255" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Fire following the 1945 plane crash.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The Building almost did not survive into the post war era. In 1945, a B-25 bomber flying through fog <a href="http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=92987873">crashed into the 79th floor</a>. Three people on the plane were killed as were 11 in the building. Many more were injured. The building was damaged terribly but survived.<br />
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The most notable feature of the building remains its height. For 23 years, it was the tallest building in the world. It remained the tallest building in New York until the World Trade Center surpassed it in 1972. For a time, there was a plan to build several more stories on top of the Empire State Building in the 1970's in order to overtake the Word Trade Center. However, those plans never came to fruition. Instead, the Building once again became the tallest in New York after the destruction of the World Trade Center on Sept. 11, 2001. It lost that title again with the completion of the new World Trade Center.<br />
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The iconic building has played a central role in numerous movies, beginning with <i>King Kong</i> in 1933. In 1982 the Building was listed on the State and National Register of Historic Places. In 1986 it became the National Parks Service recognized it as a National Historic Landmark.<br />
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One open secret about the Empire State Building is that the 102 story building has a 103rd floor. There is an area above the observation area originally designed for dirigible passengers to enter and exit their airships. However, it is only accessible by building personnel. As with many things in New York, the only way you will see it is if you know somebody. Above that is a series of TV and radio antennae for most of the City's broadcast stations.<br />
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The Building's official height is 1,250 ft. to the roof / 1,454 ft. to the top of antenna spire. It has 2,768,591 sq. ft. of floor space. It has so many addresses that in 1980 it received its own zip code (10118).<br />
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Throughout the years, ownership in the iconic building has changed ownership numerous times. Even Donald Trump attempted to <a href="http://www.npr.org/2016/05/10/477041094/the-empire-state-building-and-the-art-of-trumps-deal">acquire an interest</a> in the building in the late 1990s. Today the building is owned by the publicly traded Empire State Investment Trust.<br />
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<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-04-01T03_27_03-07_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.</div>
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-39940744931533755212016-06-11T05:16:00.000-04:002017-03-25T07:05:56.445-04:00The President who killed a political party and almost destroyed a nation.Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-03-25T04_04_46-07_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
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At one time in American history, there was a political party that suffered from deep internal divisions. Southerns conservatives and northern business interests agreed on very little. The main thing that held them together was their mutual hatred of the Democrats. They deplored many actions by the other party that they deemed both damaging to the nation and unconstitutional. They eventually nominated an outsider who only spoke of policy in vague generalities, was deeply hated by Mexicans, and who did not seem terribly committed to party principles. Sound familiar?<br />
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Of course it does. We are all familiar with the Presidency of Zachary Taylor, right? Taylor was a long time military officer. He had taken pride in the fact that he remain apolitical. He had not joined any political party and had never even voted in an election.<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://media1.shmoop.com/media/images/large/zachary-taylor.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://media1.shmoop.com/media/images/large/zachary-taylor.jpeg" width="260" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Zachary Taylor</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
In 1848, the Whig party was trying to pick its Presidential nominee. The pro-slavery southerners and the northern capitalists ran the party in an uneasy alliance. Both groups generally opposed to the Jacksonian politics that dominated the Democrats, but had little else in common. The Whigs were never a particularly powerful party in the US. They were the remnants of the old Federalist Party, which had been crushed by the far more popular Democrats who dominated the first half of the 19th Century.<br />
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The only successful Whig ticket had been William Henry Harrison in 1840. Harrison had been a popular military General who was not overly focused on politics. After plenty of internal squabbling, the Whigs chose a similar path for 1848. Gen. Zachary Taylor was a military hero. He was not terribly popular with the Mexicans, having just crushed them in the Mexican-American War. But that garnered him enough support among others to make him a credible candidate. Leading Whig politicians of the day largely opposed this outsider with no political experience. He was a crude speaking westerner with no real polish or manners. He did not seem to have any strong opinions on the issues of they day, but was seen by the masses as a strong leader. <br />
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The voters seemed to see Taylor as the anti-politician. As late as 1846, he said that the idea of running for President “never entered my head … nor is it likely to enter the head of any sane person.” Despite a career in the Army, Taylor had inherited a great deal of land and was one of the wealthiest Americans of the period. He was not beholden to anyone and refused to make deals even with other Whig leaders.<br />
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During this period, it was considered unseemly for candidates to campaign for office. They had to be seen as being drawn by others into the job. Any campaigning had to be done in a subtle way. Taylor would write letters to friends and family opining on his political views and what the country should do. The recipients would leak these letters to the press. While not as direct as modern day Twitter, they had their effect. Voters got to hear about President Taylor and his views on the issues of the day, at least in a vague way. <br />
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Taylor generally refused to get specific on any issues. He selected another moderate politician, Millard Fillmore as his Vice President. Fillmore had been a New York Congressman, but had left office five years earlier and was now a private citizen. The Party even decided not to issue a platform of issues. The campaign would be run on personality rather than policy.<br />
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The election was a difficult one. The Democrats made things easier by nominating an unpopular candidate of their own. Lewis Cass had been a senator and member of the Cabinet as Secretary of War. He also had foreign policy experience as Ambassador to France. Four years earlier, he had been the favorite to win the Democratic nomination, but had lost after a dark horse candidate named James Polk came out of nowhere to win. This time, Cass won the nomination. Still he was not overwhelmingly popular, even in his own Party. He tended to take calculated and moderate positions on issues when voters wanted a more decisive leader.<br />
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The major issue of the day was the expansion of slavery into the west. Newly acquired territory from Mexico in the American southwest was ripe for settlement. Southerners wanted to bring slaves into the territories while northerners wanted to keep them free. Both candidates generally dodged the issue, saying that the people who settled in those territories should be able to vote on the issue and decide for themselves.<br />
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Voters were clearly unhappy with both major party choices. A third party sprang up to field candidates. The Liberty Party, later morphing into the Free Soil Party, nominated its own candidate. Voter turnout was much lower than in previous elections despite the close outcome. Both candidates won 15 States, though Taylor won a few of the larger ones, defeating Cass with about 47% to 42% with a third party winning just over 10%.<br />
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The big issue of Taylor's Presidency was what to do with the Mexican Session, the land from Texas to the Pacific coast that had been ceded during the Mexican War. Taylor basically let the politicians in Congress work out a compromise. The Compromise of 1850 turned out to be an utter disaster. Under the terms of the Compromise:<br />
<ul>
<li>The US admitted California as a Free State.</li>
<li>It set the western border of Texas, forcing it to give up claims to the New Mexico territory in exchange for the government taking over the State debt.</li>
<li>The settlers in the Utah and New Mexico territories would be allowed to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery.</li>
<li>It place a ban on the sale of slaves (but not slave ownership) in the District of Columbia</li>
<li>The Fugitive Slave Act required people in free States to assist with the return of escaped slaves.</li>
</ul>
Both sides seemed unhappy with the result. Southerners realized that slaves states were destined to become a minority within the Union and that at some point they would be unable to protect the institution unless they got more aggressive in protecting slave rights now. The idea of "popular sovereignty," that is letting new States vote on slavery, led to brutal violence in new territories. Both sides used intimidation and murder to keep the other side out of territories prior to any vote. The DC slave ban caused Virginia to take back its portion of DC so that slave auctions could continue in Alexandria. The Fugitive Slave Act galvanized the abolition movement in the north. Northerners could not longer ignore slavery in far off States. Men in the north could now actually be forced into posses to help capture slaves and return them to servitude.<br />
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Taylor did not actually live long enough to see all of this. He died suddenly in 1850, after just over a year in office. His Vice President, Millard Fillmore signed the Compromise into law. But the damage was done. In 1852, the Whig Party refused even to nominate their incumbent President for another term. Instead they nominated Gen. Winfield Scott, who went on to lose to Franklin Pierce. The Party broke up completely a few years later and did not even field a candidate in 1856. The Whig party in America was dead.<br />
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The result of the Compromise of 1850 was increased violence and sectional tension throughout the 1850's, eventually leading to the outbreak of the US Civil war in 1861. This would become by far the bloodiest war in US history and the closest the US has even come to a break up of the Union.<br />
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Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-03-25T04_04_46-07_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
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<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-59562828106380231822016-05-28T07:24:00.001-04:002017-03-18T06:38:53.516-04:00The murder that started a World War and led to the creation of the United States<b>The murder that started a World War and led to the creation of the United States</b><br />
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Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-03-18T03_23_46-07_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
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Few people can claim to have a major impact on world history. Those who do are simply in the right place at the right time to do something that tips a world already on edge. That is the case with Tanachrisson, an Iroquois leader living in the Ohio Valley in the 1740s. <br />
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He was born a member of the Catawba tribe, a relatively small group living in what is today western North Carolina. As a child, he was captured in a raid. There is some dispute as to whether the Iroquois raided the Catawba or whether another tribe did and he was eventually traded to the Iroquois. In any event Tanachrisson grew up as a Seneca tribe member, a member of the Iroquois Confederacy, in what is today western New York.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie80NrUQYGsqHnw5VBsaTiXYjt0cPVCvRc5T9pPpUMW7KLkJiWgFZnvjxmWI91_rXVqMgt2wuIPhcSz3hzclF1EW-w11NjgnrXC9PcBE7dy-HggdErMjow11GXIbP1fuYX_6x3lyIEdZ5x/s1600/halfking2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEie80NrUQYGsqHnw5VBsaTiXYjt0cPVCvRc5T9pPpUMW7KLkJiWgFZnvjxmWI91_rXVqMgt2wuIPhcSz3hzclF1EW-w11NjgnrXC9PcBE7dy-HggdErMjow11GXIbP1fuYX_6x3lyIEdZ5x/s320/halfking2.jpg" width="246" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tanachrisson, the Half-King</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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The Iroquois had become quite important throughout all of the Great Lakes area by the early 1700's. They had traded with Dutch Settlers in the 1600's and were one of the first tribes to have large numbers of guns. With this advantage, Iroquois influence took control of a wide number of other tribes, ranging from New England, as far west as Illinois, and as far south as Georgia.<br />
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To control this vast region and the many other tribes inhabiting these lands, many Iroquois served as regional leaders. They ensured that Iroquois policies were implemented among the local tribes, and controlled all negotiations with the encroaching English and French colonies. Tanachrisson assumed such a role in the Ohio Valley, controlling the Delaware, Shawnee, and Mingo tribes living in that area. The English called him the "half-king" which was essentially the role of a viceroy, or regent. Essentially, he could make deals on behalf of local tribes, but was always subject to the main Iroquois council in New York.<br />
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The Iroquois had a bad habit of selling out the lands of other tribes for profit and forcing the other tribes to accept the deal and move out. They remained most closely allied with the English. Tanachrisson personally profited from such treaties. He also was no fan of the French. He told people that the French had boiled and eaten his father. It's not clear whether that was true or not, but cannibalism among warring tribes in that era did happen. <br />
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In 1753, the French began building a series of forts in the Ohio Valley, linking Lake Erie with the Ohio River, asserting control of the entire Ohio Valley. The English, particularly Virginia, opposed this move and sent a force of about 150 militia to oppose this French incursion. The Virginia militia leader was a 21 year old kid with no military or political experience. His main credential was that he came from a relatively wealthy and well connected family and was very eager to prove himself as a soldier. This kid got the Governor of Virginia to name him a Lt. Col. of militia, with authority to raise a force and lead it into the wilderness to challenge the French. <br />
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The new leader, whose name was George Washington, assembled his militia, and negotiated several guides and allies to assist him with his mission. Washington convinced Tanachrisson and a few of his warriors to join the force.<br />
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The invasion was largely a failure. Washington's troops lacked the necessary food and supplies to operate at full efficiency. They could not move very quickly as they had to cut their way through the forest. Despite Tanachrisson's assurances, most of the local tribes did not join the English. Rather, they tended to side with the French, who seemed less likely to move in and populate their land.<br />
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The French force at Fort Duquesne (modern day Pittsburgh) was alerted to the slowly approaching English force. Since France and England were at peace, the French commander deemed it appropriate to send out a small force of men to reconnoiter the enemy, determine if they were a threat, and to deliver a message that they were trespassing on French territory.<br />
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Tannachrisson became aware of the French soldiers who made camp just a few miles from the Virginians, and alerted Washington. Washington had just sent half his force in the other direction looking for the French. So now with his force divided, he decided to sneak up on the French at night and make contact with them at dawn. <br />
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The French had not been on the lookout for anyone. When English militia formed up in attack lines approached their camp at dawn, they all ran for their weapons and started shooting. There is a dispute over which side shot first. The English clearly had the upper hand. A few people were wounded before the French commander called a halt to the shooting and announced that they were simply there to deliver a message. Washington and his officers parlayed with the French to hear what they had to say.<br />
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At this point, the crisis probably could still have been averted. The French could have delivered their message and returned to the Fort. However, as the French commander read his warning to the English, Tanachrisson split open the commander's skull with a tomahawk and bathed his hands in the dead man's brains. His warriors also killed most of the French wounded before the stunned Virginians could stop them.<br />
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Tanachrisson's motives for his attack on the wounded French prisoners is unclear. According to some witnesses, he indicated that it was revenge for the French killing his father. A more practical motive was that his authority came from Iroquois control of the Ohio Valley, and the Iroquois were solidly allied with the British. Tanachrisson was picking a fight in order to keep the local tribes from drifting into French influence and away from his own. A war would compel the local tribes to back the Iroquois against the French, thus strengthening Tanachrisson's authority and power.<br />
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Tanachrisson would not live to see the long term result of his action. After the attack where Tanachrisson killed the French commander, Washington had proposed that they lead their smaller and poorly provisioned force forward to attack the much larger French force at Fort Duquesne. The half-king attempted to motivate the local tribes to joint them, but they refused. Without their help, there was no chance of success. Nevertheless, young Washington wanted to go forward and fight the enemy despite the odds. The older and more experienced Tanachrisson saw this was folly. He abandoned Washington, and took his warriors back into central Pennsylvania where they could live safely. Tanachrisson, later commented that Washington was "a good-natured man, but had no experience" was hurdling head-long into a no-win situation. <br />
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Tanachrisson was right that Washington's plan of attack was folly which resulted in many of his men being killed and the remainder captured. Washington, however, survived the campaign and went on to other things. Tanachrisson, who fled to safety, died the following year from pneumonia.<br />
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The result of the massacre of French troops by Washington and Tanachrisson caused the French to send a much larger force to capture the Virginians. Washington's small attack force retreated and were eventually forced to take a desperate stand. Many were killed in a battle a few days later. Washington and his remaining force had to ask for terms. They were permitted to return to Virginia, but only after signing a document taking responsibility for the murder of the French commander whom Tanachrisson had killed. The French used that document to declare war on Britain, starting the Seven Years War, known as the French and Indian War in America.<br />
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That war put Britain into so much debt, that Parliament decided to impose a range of taxes on the colonies. The resulting dispute over those taxes eventually led to the American Revolution. That, in turn led to the creation of the United States. All of this may have unfolded very differently if one Indian had chosen not to kill a few captured Frenchmen one day in 1754. <br />
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The day of this posting, May 28, 2016, is the 262nd Anniversary of that attack that changed the world forever.<br />
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Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-03-18T03_23_46-07_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-23118670902113677102016-04-23T07:00:00.000-04:002017-03-11T06:02:33.116-05:00Blowing up the US CapitolListen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-03-11T03_01_18-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
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Terrorism is a sad fact of life today, but it is nothing new. There have always been radicalized people willing to wreak destruction to make some political point. The US Capitol alone has been a target on several occasions..<br />
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<b>The 1814 Attack:</b><br />
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The first attack on the US Capitol came, not from terrorists acting in secret, but from an invading Army. The British Army invaded Washington DC during the War of 1812, damaging much of hte new city. During their raid on August 24, 1814, they destroyed the White House and many other government buildings. They also set fire to the Capitol. British soldiers, piled up furniture in the Capitol, mixed in rocket powder (yes, they had rockets back then) and set a fire, destroying much of the Library of Congress, then located in the Capitol, the Supreme Court, also in the Capitol, as well as the two Congressional chambers. At that time, the Capitol was not even completely finished. The only thing that saved the Capitol from complete destruction was a strong rain which put out the fire.. <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">British sack of Washington DC 1814</td></tr>
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Still the damage was quite serious. Congress had to meet in a hotel for a time. The following year Congress held its sessions in a brick building where the US Supreme Court now stands, until the Capitol could be occupied again in 1819.<br />
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For the next century, the Capitol itself was relatively free from attack. There were a few shootings and brawls inside the building but no attempts to destroy the building itself. There were also a few fires and small explosions due to accidents, but nothing deliberate. During the Civil War, Confederate forces never attempted to fire on Washington. The Capitol remained safe during the war, and even got a new dome.<br />
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<b>The 1915 Bomb:</b><br />
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In 1915, the Capitol once again became a target. Former Harvard Professor Erich Muenter had lost his job a decade earlier. He had to flee an arrest warrant for suspicion of killing his wife. Despite the outstanding warrant, Muenter, using name Frank Holt, avoided arrest and continued living his life as a free man. He had even received a PhD from Cornell University and began teaching there, with no one aware of his true identity nor the murder charges still pending in Massachusetts.<br />
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The German born Muenter became upset that the neutral US was selling arms and ammunition to Great Britain in its war with Germany. The government and private New York financiers like J.P. Morgan were actively engaged in supporting the war against his homeland. <br />
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On July 2, 1915, Muenter began his mission. He entered the Capitol. Security was far more lax than today, especially when Congress was out of session, as it had been for months. Although the Senate chamber was locked, Muenter was able to access the Senate's reception room where he hid a package of dynamite under a telephone switchboard. He set the dynamite to a timing mechanism, so that it would explode shortly before midnight.<br />
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Muenter then headed over to nearby Union Station where he watched the explosion, then boarded a train to New York City.<br />
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Because the explosion took place on a holiday weekend at night, there were no serious injuries. Capitol Hill police were on duty and one had been in the room only a few minutes before the explosion. Fortunately, he left in time to prevent casualties. Damage was mostly limited to the Reception Room itself.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Reception Room of US Senate 1915</td></tr>
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Sadly, the attack on the Capitol was only the beginning of a rampage. The following day, Muenter went to the Long Island weekend home of banking financier J.P. Morgan, knocked on the front door. Morgan answered the door himself and received two bullets from Muenter's pistol. Morgan survived the attack, however, without any serious long term effects.<br />
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Muenter was also suspected of attempting to blow up a New York Police Station and a transport vessel carrying supplies to Britain, although evidence indicates he may not have been involved in those two attacks. After the attack on Morgan, Muenter was imprisoned and his outstanding warrants exposed. He committed suicide in prison a few days later.<br />
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The day after the explosion at the Capitol, the building was again open to tourists, some of whom even saw the damaged room. Repairs were affected rather quickly and Congress continued its work. The US went on to declare war against Germany two years later, killing tens of thousans of Muenter's fellow countrymen.<br />
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<b>The 1971 Bomb:</b><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Men's bathroom, site of the 1971 explosion.</td></tr>
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On Monday March 1, 1971, in the early morning hours, Capitol Hill Police received a phone call that there would be an explosion in a few minutes, in protest of the US invasion of Laos. A few minutes later, a bomb went off in bathroom underneath the Senate Chamber. The explosion took place when the Capitol was largely empty and there were no injuries, nor much damage beyond the bathroom.<br />
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A letter purportedly from a radical group known as the Weather Underground claimed responsibility for the explosion. However, no individual was ever arrested for the crime. Some have accused Bill Ayers the "terrorist" whom the Republicans accused President Obama of "paling around with" might have been involved. Ayers alluded to the bombing in some of his later writings, but no actual proof of his involvement is known. There are a few people who have accused the Yippies of involvement, although given other events, such an attack seems much more like something the Weather Underground would do.<br />
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Authorities repaired the damage relatively quickly and continued the war in Laos, killing many thousands of Laotians.<br />
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<b>The 1983 bomb:</b><br />
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The 1983 bombing had a number of similarities to the 1971 bombing. Minutes before the explosion, an anonymous phone call warned of the explosion. The timed explosion went off around 11 PM with no injuries. Once again, it was the Senate side that was attacked. The bomb was hidden under a bench just outside the Senate Chambers. It did mostly cosmetic damage to the immediate area that was repaired relatively easily.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The 1983 Capitol Bombing</td></tr>
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The day following the explosion, National Public Radio received an anonymous letter which had been mailed prior to the explosion. It was entitled "Communique from the Armed Resistance Unit." The letter claimed the purpose of the attack: <i>"We attacked the U.S. government to retaliate against imperialist aggression that has sent the Marines, the CIA, and the Army to invade sovereign nations, to trample and lay waste the lives and rights of the peoples of Grenada, Lebanon, El Salvador, and Nicaragua, to carry out imperialism's need to dominate, oppress, and exploit." </i>The letter also expressed for "FMLN/FDR" a leftist guerrilla group in El Salvador, as well as the PLO in the Palestinian territory.<br />
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After a five year investigation, six people were eventually arrested for the Capitol bombing as well as attacks on several other government buildings. In 1990, Marilyn Buck, Laura Whitehorn and Linda Sue Evans were convicted of conspiracy and malicious destruction of government property. The Court dropped charges against three other defendants, who were already serving prison sentences for related crimes.<br />
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Following the 1983 bombings, Capitol Hill Police closed off more of the Capitol to the public and implemented use of ID cards for Congressional staff. They also installed metal detectors for the first time for everyone entering the Capitol and attached buildings.<br />
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<b>Other Actions:</b><br />
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In addition to these, there have been multiple failed attempts to set of bombs at the Capitol. There are also numerous shooting events, including the time in 1954 when <a href="http://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/1954-Shooting/Essays/Timeline/">Puerto Rican nationals opened fire</a> on the House Chamber from the Visitors Gallery. Five members were injured. Of course, the most potentially damaging failed attack was the Sept. 11 airplane that crashed in Pennsylvania. It is suspected that the terrorists were headed for the US Capitol.<br />
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Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-03-11T03_01_18-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
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<b>Further Reading:</b><br />
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<a href="http://www.history.com/news/the-british-burn-washington-d-c-200-years-ago">http://www.history.com/news/the-british-burn-washington-d-c-200-years-ago</a><br />
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<a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/03/02/a-look-at-the-history-of-attacks-in-the-u-s-capitol-44-years-after-the-weather-underground-bombing/">https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2015/03/02/a-look-at-the-history-of-attacks-in-the-u-s-capitol-44-years-after-the-weather-underground-bombing/</a><br />
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<a href="http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1942/2/14/muenter-once-german-teacher-here-killed/">http://www.thecrimson.com/article/1942/2/14/muenter-once-german-teacher-here-killed/</a><br />
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<a href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/news/topics/muenter.html">https://www.loc.gov/rr/news/topics/muenter.html</a><br />
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<a href="http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1971/03/01/page/1/article/bomb-rocks-u-s-capital">http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1971/03/01/page/1/article/bomb-rocks-u-s-capital</a><br />
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<a href="http://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/08/us/bomb-explodes-in-senate-s-wing-of-capitol-no-injuries-reported.html">http://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/08/us/bomb-explodes-in-senate-s-wing-of-capitol-no-injuries-reported.html</a><br />
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<a href="http://www.politico.com/story/2007/11/bomb-explodes-in-capitol-on-nov-7-1983-006728">http://www.politico.com/story/2007/11/bomb-explodes-in-capitol-on-nov-7-1983-006728</a><br />
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<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-2673200747937600162016-04-09T11:26:00.000-04:002017-03-04T07:03:15.118-05:00Indians Aiding the IrishListen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-03-04T04_00_34-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
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While working on my last post about Irish history, I cam across an interesting story. In the midst of the Irish Potato Famine, the Choctaw Indian Tribe donated $174 to the Irish people. <br />
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The amount given was not significant. It would be about $4000 in today's dollars. What was truly amazing was that the Choctaw had, only a few years earlier, been forced off their land in Mississippi and forced to walk the "trail of tears" to what is today Oklahoma, a bleak and barren land where little would grow. They had been forced into abject poverty by the European descendants who had taken their property. Despite, this, they felt compelled to help people on the other side of the world who were at the moment suffering more than they were.<br />
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<b>Potatoes in Ireland</b><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Potato infected by the blight</td></tr>
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The Potato Famine itself is a terrible natural disaster combined with such human indifference. It has become a landmark historic event. Europeans introduced potatoes to Ireland from South America around 1600. Because the plant allowed the growth of so much food on very little land, the crop soon became a popular staple to the land starved hungry Irish. For decades the new crop flourished. But when blight began to hit the crop, it had no natural ability to resist, as many native crops would, and was utterly destroyed.<br />
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Massive crop damage is nothing new to farmers. Disease can wipe out a crop. Potatoes, however had become so critical to the common diet in Ireland that the complete loss of a crop left millions without any food at all. What made the Potato Famine so different was that it covered the entire Island and hit successively for several years in a row. Some Irish farmers grew other crops, but these were cash crops for export. Starving Irish had to watch this food leave for England while they had nothing to eat.<br />
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<b>Irish Government</b><br />
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In a democracy, politicians looking to curry favor with voters would stumble over themselves rushing to bring aid and assistance to the victims of this sort of tragedy. Most Irish, however, could not vote in 1845. Voting was limited to land owners. Ownership of all land fell to a relatively small number of Protestant nobles. These were the descendants of those who benefitted from the British confiscation of land from Catholic leaders centuries earlier. Catholics could not own land, and as a result also could not vote. Many of these land owners did not even live in Ireland but simply owned the land while living in London. These few nobles, were the only "voters" that were of any concern. The Act of Union in 1800 had made Ireland part of the United Kingdom and included Irish representation in Parliament. But again, these members of Parliament were chosen by the Protestant aristocracy, not the Irish Catholic people. Just to be sure, Catholics were barred from serving in Parliament.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ireland, before the famine</td></tr>
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For the Irish commoner, potato farming was difficult even in good years. Most had farms that were extremely small, often 1-10 acres, to grow all the family's food for the year. Farmers planted potatoes in March and harvested in September or October. July and August were often known as the "starving months" when the previous year's crop was gone and the new one not quite ready. Since farmers ate most of their crops, there was no money to buy any extra food. What little money they could raise paid for the rent on their land. They stored harvested potatoes in covered underground holes to get them through the next year.<br />
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In case the Irish Catholics wanted to better themselves, English Penal laws prevented them from doing so. As already mentioned, Catholics could not own land or vote. They could not serve as an officer in the army or navy. They could not hold any government office, practice law, attend school, or serve an apprenticeship. They also could not own weapons. Irish could not export goods to countries other than England and policies effectively prevented any industry or manufacturing on the island. So, Irish Catholics were stuck in subsistence farming on land owned by their Protestant masters, with no options to do anything else.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Starving Irish</td></tr>
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While there were some attempts at reform, little had changed for centuries. In 1835, Gustave de Beaumont, a French sociologist, visited Ireland: "<i>I have seen the Indian in his forests, and the Negro in his chains, and thought, as I contemplated their pitiable condition, that I saw the very extreme of human wretchedness; but I did not then know the condition of unfortunate Ireland...In all countries, more or less, paupers may be discovered; but an entire nation of paupers is what was never seen until it was shown in Ireland.</i>" This was the condition of the Irish people <i>before</i> the Potato Famine struck.<br />
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The English at this time viewed the Irish as simply lazy and ignorant. Farming left long periods of time with relatively little work to do outside of the planting and harvest period. Many Irish could not afford to rent land at all. Without other opportunities for employment, they survived by begging. The English ignored the lack of opportunities and simply saw a lazy unproductive population worthy of scorn.<br />
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<b>Potato Famine Strikes</b><br />
<br />
Those were the good times. In 1845, things became much worse as the potato blight swept across the island. An airborne fungus (phytophthora infestans) floated across waiting fields of potatoes in the fall of 1845, incubating and growing inside the millions of potatoes. Farmers, finishing the "starving months" eagerly anticipated the harvest. Harvested potatoes quickly turned black and shriveled within days of exposure to air. The crop was completely inedible.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">An Irish funeral during the Famine.</td></tr>
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There were, of course, many reasonable political options that could have relieved the suffering. Food was plentiful in many other areas of the world, and trade was ready and willing to ship tons of food to paying customers. If the British Government had acted quickly and in the best interests of the Irish people, the famine could have been a minor agricultural blip in history that meant almost nothing. In fact, significant compassionate aid might have improved the outlook of the Irish people toward their British rulers and led to better relations in the future. Of course, none of that happened.<br />
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Rather than recognize the impossible position of the Irish people, English tended to blame their laziness and lack of work ethic. They ignored a political system that had drawn virtually all excess wealth of the island for generations, creating no room for such a downturn. Some English even saw the blight as a just punishment from God. There were a few efforts. Britain provided about £100,000 worth of American corn meal to be sold at cost to the Irish population. It was a cheap import that could provide food. There were many problems though. The corn meal had to be ground in a country that had almost no mills. The Irish found the corn hard to cook and digest. It led to diarrhea and also lacked vitamin C, leading to scurvy in those who survived on it. Beyond this, it was simply insufficient to replace the roughly £3 million loss of the potato crop. It was also assistance based on the assumption that the following year's crop would be fine. When the 1846 harvest was even worse, there was no attempt to continue the program. <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Irish Family During the Famine</td></tr>
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To make things even worse, British corn laws heavily taxed the import of any food from abroad. This was designed to keep food prices high and protect English farmers from foreign competition. Failure to repeal or even temporarily wave such laws in 1845 prevented cheap food from entering Ireland. Although it was proposed, English land owning farmers opposed any change to the tariffs. They could vote, while the starving masses in Ireland could not. Nothing changed.<br />
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<br />
<b>The Famine Continues</b><br />
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Many Irish had survived 1845 by selling what few possessions they owned, even their clothes, in order to buy food or pay rent on their farms. Essentially they bet everything on a good harvest the following year. When the crop failed a second year, they had no resources to use. While the English government did finally repeal the tariffs on food imports, food prices world wide had grown due to crop shortages in Europe. Some imported food prices tripled for people who had no more money anyway. Britain refused to provide any food assistance. Its primary involvement was to provide soldiers to shoot desperate and starving people who tried to prevent other crops from being exported to England. There were a few public works projects designed to provide very low paying jobs. This terrible low paying work was highly desired, even though a few workers literally dropped dead at work from the hard work and malnutrition.<br />
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By 1847, the works projects ended and soup kitchens began to provide direct assistance. But this was too little, too late. There simply was not enough food to feed the starving masses. After a year, even the soup kitchens closed, leaving nothing <br />
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Landlords, unable to collect rents, had tenant farmers sent to jail for non-payment. Their families were thrown in the streets to die. The government continued to demand property taxes, so landlords even if inclined to provide some mercy, would have to take huge financial losses if they did not do something to put the land to profitable work.<br />
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More than 1 million people, on an island of 8 million, died from starvation or disease related to the malnutrition. An estimated 1.5 million more fled the island.<br />
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<b>Final Solution: Go Away</b><br />
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The English, tired of providing any assistance to Ireland, began to encourage emigration. Ships to British North America (Canada) dumped thousands of starving disease ridden emigrants in small towns throughout Canada. Most of these people died from the harsh conditions and lack of support. Many had even died before arrival on the "coffin ships" that carried them across the Atlantic. <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Irish Refugees escaping the Famine</td></tr>
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Some Irish traveled to England and Wales, where jobs and assistance was better. The British reaction to this was to ship most of them back to Ireland, forcibly, where most died.<br />
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Many Irish traveled to the United States. Because travel to America was more expensive, those suffering the most often could not make the trip. Even in America, they faced difficult conditions and anti-Catholic hostility from the Protestant population. Many settled in Boston, where the laws a few centuries earlier permitted the execution of any Catholic Priest found in the Colony. This fiercely Protestant town eventually received thousands of Irish immigrants. Today there are more people of Irish descent living in the greater Boston area than there are in all of Ireland. Other large cities, including New York and Philadelphia became homes to Irish refugees. Life was hard and grueling 12 hour work days were common. Local lynchings of Irish immigrants were not unusual. But the benefit of being able to feed their families made the new life far more preferable to life in Ireland.<br />
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<b>Private Assistance</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
The British government provided far too little assistance to help Ireland cope with this disaster. However, as this disaster began to unfold, private groups began to contribute what they could. No private group was large enough or wealthy enough to provide the necessary assistance for systemic relief. But basic compassion from many, resulted in efforts to provide what assistance they could.<br />
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The British Relief Association was formed 1847 by Lionel de Rothschild, a Jewish banker in London. This private association solicited donations worldwide, raising relief funds in Venezuela, Australia, South Africa, Mexico, Russia and Italy. It coordinated the receipt of over 15,000 individual contributions raising about £400,000, which was used to establish schools for Irish children, and provided free lunches at school. While this was one of the most well funded organizations, it started late and existed for only a little more than one year.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Quaker Soup Kitchen</td></tr>
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Ireland contained a small Quaker population of a few thousand. This group was relatively well off, but more importantly had associations with Quaker groups in American and England. Through these connections Quakers raised probably the largest amount of any private group, distributing close to £200,000 in the first two years of famine.<br />
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<br /></div>
One of the largest outside groups was a group of British subjects in Calcutta India, who provided around £14,000 worth of aid. The money was donated not by a few wealthy leaders, but through a massive fundraising campaign. Many British soldiers in India were Irish. They contributed generously. Many Hindu princes also gave donations, as did many Indian workers who worked closely with the soldiers.<br />
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Pope Pius IX made a large personal donation to famine relief in 1847. More importantly, he issued a papal encyclical to Catholics worldwide, appealing for both prayers and financial assistance.<br />
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Small groups of people in US cities who were either Irish immigrants or sympathetic to the Irish plight also raised hundreds of dollars in small contributions from poor working people. Vice President George Dallas held an appeal to raise relief funds. President James Polk kicked in a mere $50. However, he also made two US naval vessels available to ship private food donations to Ireland, despite the fact that the US was at war with Mexico at the time.<br />
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<br /></div>
Not only was the British government cheap in providing government assistance, it also went out of its way to discourage some private aid as well. When the Sultan of Turkey (who was looking to ingratiate himself with the British Government) offered £10,000 in assistance, the British Consul advised him to lower his assistance. It might offend royal protocol if he sent more money than the British Queen had donated (£2000). The Sultan dutifully reduced his donation to £1,000.<br />
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Private fundraising efforts reached around the world. Many people contributed. What fascinates me most are the very small contributions made by those who could least afford it. Former slaves in British colonies in the Caribbean made donations from Jamaica, Barbados, and St. Kitts. Britain had only ended slavery less than a decade earlier. While these people still lived in terrible poverty, they were moved to contribute something to the suffering Irish. Perhaps part of this was in thanks to Daniel O’Connell, an Irishman who played a leading role in ending slavery in the British colonies. <br />
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Not only former slaves, but current slaves in America also made donations. A number of contributions in the American South came from collections in slave churches. Even children in a pauper orphanage in New York, as well as prison inmates in Sing Sing were moved to join the call for donations.<br />
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<b>Ending Famine Assistance</b><br />
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The worldwide assistance generally came to an end when the English declared the Famine over in 1848. They did this, despite the fact that more Irish died in 1849 than any other year. The Famine is now generally considered to have lasted until 1852. The British were simply embarrassed by the foreign outcry for assistance and no longer wanted the attention is was garnering.<br />
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Exact numbers of casualties of the Famine are unknown as the British did not keep written records. But the population of Ireland in 1840 was estimated at over 8 million. By 1850, it was less than 6 million. Further suffering and hardship caused continuing depopulation. Even today, after many decades of recovery, the total Irish population is only around 4.5 million.<br />
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<b>The Choctaw Donation</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Amidst the wave of international fundraising, one of the most fascinating contributions comes from the Choctaw Indian Tribe.<br />
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The Choctaw Indians originally inhabited much of what is today the States of Mississippi and Alabama. They were one of the "civilized tribes." They lived in stable farming communities with permanent homes and had adopted many of the white customs. Many spoke English and had converted to Christianity Some even owned rather large plantations and black slaves. Despite all this, white southerners coveted their land. <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The "Trail of Tears"</td></tr>
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After the election of President Andrew Jackson in 1828, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, essentially requiring all Tribes to move west of the Mississippi River. The Choctaw received miserable desert lands in what is today Oklahoma and removed from their native homelands. At gunpoint soldiers forced men, women and children to walk to their new home in what has become known as the "Trail of Tears"<br />
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Alexis de Tocqueville, the French philosopher, saw first hand the Choctaw removals while he was visiting in Memphis, Tennessee in 1831 "<i>In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one couldn't watch without feeling one's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil, but sombre and taciturn. There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free," he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We ... watch the expulsion ... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.</i>"<br />
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To say the travel to Oklahoma was difficult is a understatement. Of the roughly 17,000 Choctaw who began the trip, about one-third died along the way. Forced to abandon most of their possessions, the surviving tribal members lived in poverty on inhospitable land. Despite these hardships, they remained on relatively good terms with the US and continued to interact with the rest of the country.<br />
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When the call came to support Irish Famine relief, many Choctaw willingly contributed what little they could. They had known suffering and starvation themselves on the Trail of Tears and thereafter. The fact that the suffering Irish were Europeans, much like those oppressing the Choctaw did not dissuade them.<br />
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Years later, the Choctaw contribution to the Irish Famine has received more attention. In the 1990's there were Irish delegations to the Choctaw nation in Oklahoma and Choctaw delegations to Ireland commemorating the act of generosity. A plaque on Dublin's Mansion House remembers the Choctaw contribution: <i>"Their humanity calls us to remember the millions of human beings throughout our world today who die of hunger and hunger-related illness in a world of plenty."</i><br />
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Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-03-04T04_00_34-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
<b>Further Reading:</b><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.irishcentral.com/roots/amazing-story-of-how-choctaw-indians-raised-money-for-irish-famine-relief-234212611-237790401.html">http://www.irishcentral.com/roots/amazing-story-of-how-choctaw-indians-raised-money-for-irish-famine-relief-234212611-237790401.html</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.historyplace.com/worldhistory/famine/index.html">http://www.historyplace.com/worldhistory/famine/index.html</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://irishamerica.com/2009/08/international-relief-efforts-during-the-famine/">http://irishamerica.com/2009/08/international-relief-efforts-during-the-famine/</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/articles/12/mushulatubbee-and-choctaw-removal-chiefs-confront-a-changing-world">http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/articles/12/mushulatubbee-and-choctaw-removal-chiefs-confront-a-changing-world</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.indians.org/articles/choctaw-indians.html">http://www.indians.org/articles/choctaw-indians.html</a><br />
<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-26749244521626621352016-03-26T09:27:00.000-04:002017-02-25T06:55:16.501-05:00Irish IndependenceListen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-02-25T03_42_58-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
World War I changed the map of Europe in many ways. It had a particular impact on Ireland. One hundred years ago, the Irish Easter Revolt of 1916 struck a blow for independence. It was a key event in the eventual creation of an independent Irish Republic.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Easter Uprising Proclamation</td></tr>
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To understand the Irish independence movement, it is important to remember its origin. Ireland had been under the control of Britain since the 12th Century when the Normans, who had completed their conquest of England, moved into Ireland to take control there as well. In the Centuries that followed, however, Ireland went through periods of relative independence when England essentially ignored them, to periods of invasion and control when the English feared they might pose a threat to British control. Ireland had its own parliament, but was controlled by the Lord Deputy of Ireland, appointed by the King of England. The Irish paid taxes and tribute to English rulers.<br />
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In the 1500's King Henry VIII and his successors engaged in a concerted effort to bring Ireland under greater control of England. Several decades of warfare finally resulted in the "flight of the Earls" when Irish lords finally fled the island for Europe after being defeated by English forces.<br />
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The English attempted to force changes that the Irish violently resisted. England's attempts to convert the Irish from Catholicism to Protestantism created schisms that continue to this day. England also engaged in mass colonization, bringing in Scottish and English colonists, who settled primarily in northern Ireland, to exert better control. Only Protestants could serve in the Irish Parliament, and only land owning males could vote. Oliver Cromwell seized all land owned by Catholics and gave it to Protestant nobility. As a result, the Irish people had no real say in their own government.<br />
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Catholics could not inherit property, bear arms, or serve in any government position, including the army. They remained under English control for centuries, suffering this unjust and degrading second class citizenship. Occasionally rebellions would break out, but English military might could not be overcome. A major rebellion in 1798 resulted in the "Act of Union" which dissolved the Irish Parliament and merged Ireland into the United Kingdom, entirely under the control of the British Parliament.<br />
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Despite becoming a part of the UK, the Irish people remained either abused or neglected by the British government. When the Irish Potato Famine began in the 1840's, Britain simply allowed millions of peasants to starve to death, literally. No significant food or assistance was offered as people died with nothing to eat. In fact much of the food that did grow in Ireland during this time was exported to England as the Irish people had no money to buy it. Grain tariffs remained in place, making imported bread too expensive for most commoners. The population of Ireland dropped from over 6.5 million to just over three million over the next few decades as the Irish people either died or fled the country.<br />
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The result of this passive genocide was a renewed call for Irish political reform, to create a government of, by, and for the people. In the late 1800's a powerful home rule movement began to grow in Ireland. Several home rule bills were proposed and defeated. The Irish grew more radicalized over time as they saw legislative reform was impossible. <br />
<br />
Not all Irish wanted home rule. A Home Rule Bill in 1912 inspired the creation of the first modern paramilitary organization in Ireland, the Ulster Volunteers. Ironically this was a group of Northern Irish Protestants who opposed home rule. They had no desire to fall under the control of the Irish Catholics whom they had oppressed for so many centuries. The Catholics in response created the Irish Nationals and the Irish Republican Brotherhood. The country seemed to be gearing up for a civil war after the Home Rule Bill passed. Then, in 1914, WWI began and home rule was delayed for the duration of the war.<br />
<br />
For Irish Republicans, this delay was unacceptable. Not only did they continue to live under oppressive English rule, but Irish were being conscripted into the British Army to go fight a war in Europe. Some Irish Republicans met the the German government, encouraging a German invasion of Ireland, or at least providing assistance to Irish resistance against England. The British navy sank a German U-Boat attempting to deliver arms and ammunition to the rebels, just days before the Easter uprising was scheduled to begin. The planned uprising for Easter Sunday was delayed a day until Monday.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpC96BEaqTRDPXrRCPQLJ07SIwt9RV-aptfAen2rOWj57h4zjcm4Hq9R1gTWTmCmlLjiFluNGmiD-OS6i_hyphenhyphentoI3Z_O31sBdUvMZFqdruNM8VlNzzblwDtTVPYDVgQfiC6VFjl37M8DoIH/s1600/EasterRising7.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="236" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpC96BEaqTRDPXrRCPQLJ07SIwt9RV-aptfAen2rOWj57h4zjcm4Hq9R1gTWTmCmlLjiFluNGmiD-OS6i_hyphenhyphentoI3Z_O31sBdUvMZFqdruNM8VlNzzblwDtTVPYDVgQfiC6VFjl37M8DoIH/s320/EasterRising7.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Street fighting during the Easter Uprising.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
On Monday, however, 1200 men attempted to secure key locations around Dublin. Several other cities also participated in coordinated attacks. Soldiers, police, rebels, and civilians were killed during the fighting over the following week. <br />
<br />
The British reaction was overwhelming and brutal. More than 16,000 troops were rushed to the area. British soldiers invaded homes and bayoneted civilians and rebels alike. Several pro-republican activists who had no role in the uprising were summarily executed under the orders of British officers. Artillery was used to demolish parts of Dublin, killing many civilians. Under modern standards, all of these actions would be considered war crimes. At this time, however, no punishment or even criticism was expressed by the British government.<br />
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<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgk2JrE3dbidWduj5ZL88NWdGDzBDtMlLAuA_iWgKJ7oaBj8mqEwSuBHqK8ac7IlaJ75fjHzUsEN07pGTNjJzUqb6bfTyTPqigw3HDa-hZfqvPA4qielqlXyaHBSFj_430qNLdS6YrQ681P/s1600/0004a612-642.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgk2JrE3dbidWduj5ZL88NWdGDzBDtMlLAuA_iWgKJ7oaBj8mqEwSuBHqK8ac7IlaJ75fjHzUsEN07pGTNjJzUqb6bfTyTPqigw3HDa-hZfqvPA4qielqlXyaHBSFj_430qNLdS6YrQ681P/s320/0004a612-642.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dublin's devastation following the British suppression</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Overall about 500 people died and another 2200 were wounded. The majority of dead and wounded were civilians, with no involvement in the fighting. After the fighting had ended, British retribution remained just as brutal. Within weeks, 90 men were tried by military courts martial, sentenced to death, and executed by firing squad. More than 3500 people were arrested and detained, either without trial or by summary military trial. Roughly 1500 of those were held longer term in internment camps, many without any proof of their participation in the rebellion. Many were held simply because of their stated Republican beliefs, which were deemed to constitute a danger.<br />
<br />
The British crack down only increased political support for independence. The following year, the Sinn Fein party was created, and went on to landslide victories in the Parliamentary elections of 1918. Finally, in 1922, the British permitted Ireland to form the Irish Free Republic, which covered most of the Island, other than the section of Northern Ireland dominated by the decedents of Protestant colonists. That area remains part of Britain and remains a source of contention to this day.<br />
<br />
Ireland today remembers 1916 the same way Americans remember 1776. It was the year that the modern fight for Irish Independence began. Although the fight would take several years, the actions of the 1916 Easter Uprising were critical to its ultimate success.<br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-02-25T03_42_58-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
<b>Further Reading:</b><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.theirishstory.com/2012/09/18/the-irish-war-of-independence-a-brief-overview">http://www.theirishstory.com/2012/09/18/the-irish-war-of-independence-a-brief-overview</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/easterrising/prelude/index.shtml">http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/easterrising/prelude/index.shtml</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ireland-1845-to-1922/the-1916-easter-rising/">http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/ireland-1845-to-1922/the-1916-easter-rising/</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/ireland/12200216/What-was-the-Irelands-Easter-Rising-in-1916-Easter-Rebellion-armed-insurrection.html">http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/ireland/12200216/What-was-the-Irelands-Easter-Rising-in-1916-Easter-Rebellion-armed-insurrection.html</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/An-guide-to-the-historical-figures-and-moments-of-the-1916-Easter-Rising.html">http://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/An-guide-to-the-historical-figures-and-moments-of-the-1916-Easter-Rising.html</a><br />
<br />
If you would like a full book on the topic, I recommend <i><a href="https://www.amazon.com/1916-Easter-Tim-Pat-Coogan/dp/0753818523" target="_blank">1916: The Easter Rising Paperback</a></i> by Tim Pat Coogan (2005).<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-1472932547613229552016-03-12T06:47:00.000-05:002017-02-18T06:43:44.626-05:00Meet Bill Hitler, US NavyListen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-02-18T03_15_46-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
It's tough to have a family name like Hitler. Association with one of the most hated and despised names in modern history cannot be easy. But that was the situation that William Patrick Hitler had to endure during WWII. <br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvbDfjoCbUI7Z_KI4MkMIdhftZgw2jbbUiCCRRb2PYnUW4MMd-Kh9sVn0BSyzW2eu_Vg64R0qg57c6YFU-SdLOR1y7kl1W6eFp64KdBTyDQUGWVYMif_4SRSZpBSTOZNciaRc0IUmemBj-/s1600/William-Patrick-Hitler1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvbDfjoCbUI7Z_KI4MkMIdhftZgw2jbbUiCCRRb2PYnUW4MMd-Kh9sVn0BSyzW2eu_Vg64R0qg57c6YFU-SdLOR1y7kl1W6eFp64KdBTyDQUGWVYMif_4SRSZpBSTOZNciaRc0IUmemBj-/s320/William-Patrick-Hitler1.jpg" width="205" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">William Hitler</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
William did more than simply share a surname with Adolf Hitler. Adolf was the boy's uncle. Adolf's half-brother Alois fathered the child in England in 1911. Alois abandoned the family a few years later. William's British mother raised him as a normal British child. He had no contact with his father or anyone else in the Hitler family while growing up. In fact, his mother had been told that his father was dead, which she believed for many years. <br />
<br />
When William was a teenager, he found out his father was still alive. Naturally curious to learn more about his father, he went to visit him in Germany in 1929. He visited several more times over the next couple of years, attending a Nazi rally and meeting his Uncle Adolf. <br />
<br />
In hindsight, it is easy to be critical of the boy's association with the Nazis. But at this time, Adolf Hitler was simply the leader of an extremist political organization. He was not yet guilty of the crimes against humanity that he would commit a decade later. Back in England, William wrote several articles about his Uncle. While not yet a war criminal, the British people saw Adolf Hitler as a threat. William's association caused him to lose his job in Britain and made it impossible for him to find another.<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEja-_yxtr4xC5tK5JgrREIbwM55SRztejmL38OEPH3prMEjz01-FYlssWOB2NffaUf7uncGg6SbiVrjqjsqOXvW0-mks5nJOzoIr1JCDg-O5hmodswnUISxUb5Rl5G6Kd-m5s7YFa0O4jdN/s1600/24patchogue.1901.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEja-_yxtr4xC5tK5JgrREIbwM55SRztejmL38OEPH3prMEjz01-FYlssWOB2NffaUf7uncGg6SbiVrjqjsqOXvW0-mks5nJOzoIr1JCDg-O5hmodswnUISxUb5Rl5G6Kd-m5s7YFa0O4jdN/s1600/24patchogue.1901.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
William Hitler with mother</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
NYC, 1939</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Rejected by the country of his birth, William decided to move to Germany, where his association with the up and coming political leader might benefit him. He worked in Berlin for a bank and later a car company in the early 1930's. Uncle Adolf, however, saw the boy as a threat. He seemed to have divided loyalties between Britain and Germany and also seem to enjoy discussing his uncle's embarrassing family history. <br />
<br />
Adolf did not want a close family member making trouble. Government officials kept a watch on William. Several times, he was summoned to speak with his Uncle Adolf, who berated him and made his life generally miserable. There is some evidence that William tried to threaten his Uncle by revealing family secrets, which if true would have made their relationship even worse.<br />
<br />
In 1936, William decided to cut his ties with Hitler and Germany and move back to Britain. Anti-Hitler sentiment in Britain had only gotten worse in the intervening years. To prove his loyalty, William attempted to join the British military. He was, however, rejected due to his relationship to Adolf Hitler. William decided he would never really have acceptance in either Germany or Britain. In 1939, he decided to move to America and make a life for himself there.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitx81u2oMjXFzaxqeaM2nUEZ6RzySc65eDG6GOfT2ogSrsfPqBiMZzanK9wXC_9tpxu9Pd5w8WYMVpZ7CeAaF085S3EnoLLffrWuMtePLcaIZn1gRgk5xYjBgOLKwwvj0U89uwBqBEnHjH/s1600/williamhitler.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitx81u2oMjXFzaxqeaM2nUEZ6RzySc65eDG6GOfT2ogSrsfPqBiMZzanK9wXC_9tpxu9Pd5w8WYMVpZ7CeAaF085S3EnoLLffrWuMtePLcaIZn1gRgk5xYjBgOLKwwvj0U89uwBqBEnHjH/s320/williamhitler.jpg" width="273" /></a></div>
In America, William did not try to hide his relationship to Adolf Hitler. Instead, he tried to build a career out of it. He began a lecture tour in the US, sponsored by William Randolph Hearst discussing the dangers of the Nazis. In 1939, He published a lengthy article in <i>Look</i> magazine entitled "Why I Hate My Uncle" which tried to awaken the American people to the growing Nazi menace.<br />
<br />
William also tried to join the US military. But for some reason, recruiters questioned whether William Hitler, a recent German immigrant, might pose a security risk. His applications were rejected. Eventually after the war began, William wrote directly to President Roosevelt, begging to be allowed to fight. The White House referred the application to the FBI for investigation. After, several years of investigation J. Edger Hoover, gave approval and William Hitler enlisted in the US Navy.<br />
<br />
In March 1944, William Hitler joined the US Navy in New York City. He served for three years as a pharmacist's mate, even receiving a Purple Heart for a minor injury. He served honorably but relatively obscurely until his discharge in 1947.<br />
<br />
Despite his loyal service, the Hitler surname only continued to cause him trouble. He decided finally to change his name to William Stuart-Houston. It is not clear why he chose that name, but it is clear why he wanted the change. The name change allowed William to live a life of quiet anonymity. He married a German born American wife and had four children. He settled into a home on Long Island and lived a normal life until his death in 1987.<br />
<br />
None of his four children had children of their own, bringing the family line of Hitlers in America to an end.<br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-02-18T03_15_46-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
<b>Further Reading:</b><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.americainwwii.com/articles/corpsman-hitler-us-navy">http://www.americainwwii.com/articles/corpsman-hitler-us-navy</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2011/06/adolf-hitler-had-a-british-nephew-who-joined-the-u-s-navy-during-wwii">http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2011/06/adolf-hitler-had-a-british-nephew-who-joined-the-u-s-navy-during-wwii</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/24/nyregion/24patchogue.html?_r=1&">http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/24/nyregion/24patchogue.html?_r=1&</a><br />
<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-30552836257035966512016-02-27T06:24:00.000-05:002017-03-11T06:08:56.969-05:00Malcolm X meeting with the KKKListen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-02-11T04_45_43-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
Malcolm X remains a controversial figure in the civil rights movement. Many see him as an early promoter of black pride, as a men who encouraged African-Americans to stand up for their rights and fight the injustices imposed by the white majority. He is remembered as being more militant in his fight for civil rights, contrasted with the non-violent resistance of Martin Luther King Jr.'s Southern Christian Leadership Conference. What many forget was that Malcolm and the Nation of Islam were not fighting for integration but for black separatism. Even more shocking is that Malcolm X once sat down with leaders of the Ku Klux Klan to discuss their common interests.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzIjHxmDL8vtnWQjXR-yDRJZJmJlI2GJvoAX4IIbAO_OVlfE5HXx_58psOXQsy83bEYqrrA_aJeiaiKYKByCrR0NFi-wYK9fUMmZhv4wEsaCT16g4gjHPWlIjhWR5EBHTnXNkLC15hEvqP/s1600/malcolmx.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzIjHxmDL8vtnWQjXR-yDRJZJmJlI2GJvoAX4IIbAO_OVlfE5HXx_58psOXQsy83bEYqrrA_aJeiaiKYKByCrR0NFi-wYK9fUMmZhv4wEsaCT16g4gjHPWlIjhWR5EBHTnXNkLC15hEvqP/s320/malcolmx.jpg" width="213" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Malcolm X</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Malcolm X had become a leader in the Nation of Islam during the 1950's. While this group sought to promote the interests of African Americans, it took a very different approach from other civil rights groups. The difference was not just violence vs. non-violence to achieve one's goals. The Nation of Islam did not seek better relations with the white population. It did not want to desegregate the country. Rather, it sought black separatism. The white and black races, it argued, could never get along. The best option was for African Americans to separate completely from the white population and to form their own communities.<br />
<br />
This was an area of agreement that the Nation of Islam had with the Ku Klux Klan. Both wanted to see a separation of the races. It was thought that they might work together toward this goal. The meeting took place in 1960, but Malcolm did not discuss it publicly until 1965 less than a week before his death:<br />
<br />
<i>"In December of 1960, I was in the home of Jeremiah, the minister in Atlanta, Georgia. I’m ashamed to say it, but I’m going to tell you the truth. I sat at the table myself with the heads of the Ku Klux Klan. I sat there myself, with the heads of the Ku Klux Klan, who at that time were trying to negotiate with Elijah Muhammad so that they could make available to him a large area of land in Georgia or I think it was South Carolina. They had some very responsible persons in the government who were involved in it and who were willing to go along with it. They wanted to make this land available to him so that his program of separation would sound more feasible to Negroes and therefore lessen the pressure that the integrationists were putting upon the white man. I sat there. I negotiated it. I listened to their offer. And I was the one who went back to Chicago and told Elijah Muhammad what they had offered."</i><br />
<br />
Beyond Malcolm's comments, relatively little is known about the details of the meeting. It was a very private meeting with no publicity or pictures. Neither side had much incentive to publicize it. In retrospect, it obviously came to nothing. A few years after this meeting, several landmark civil rights laws, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Fair Housing Act of 1968 made any such segregated area a legal impossibility.<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6ideCG2Kl_uL-fy8Ng0DCk3zxwPR_3vsw8NlfHNIRL1ms8ctDCoWb3-rtcRlF9tI97nXBP6HMoQ27xLgAMm7Ayl-qHKhqo5aX4w0eSb0K0DuOQdluKb5b8651ERy5Y_1PrcGkJ9lQlL6g/s1600/Rockwell_at_Nation_of_Islam_Rally.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="216" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6ideCG2Kl_uL-fy8Ng0DCk3zxwPR_3vsw8NlfHNIRL1ms8ctDCoWb3-rtcRlF9tI97nXBP6HMoQ27xLgAMm7Ayl-qHKhqo5aX4w0eSb0K0DuOQdluKb5b8651ERy5Y_1PrcGkJ9lQlL6g/s320/Rockwell_at_Nation_of_Islam_Rally.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">American Nazis at Nation of Islam Rally</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
This was not the only controversial meeting that Malcolm had with hard core racists. In 1961, several members of the American Nazi Party attended a speech given by Malcolm X. According to reports, the Nation of Islam seated the Nazi's prominently in the front row and that during a request for contributions, the Nazi's made donations. Nazi Leader George Lincoln Rockwell commented on the Nation of Islam: <i>"I am fully in concert with their program, and I have the highest respect for Elijah Muhammad." </i>The two groups shared a hatred of the Jews, as well as a desire to separate blacks and whites.<br />
<br />
Still, the two groups never really found a way to work closely. In 1962, Rockwell was permitted to speak after Elijah Muhammad at a Nation of Islam rally. Among his comments, he said: <i>"You know that we call you 'niggers.' But wouldn't you rather be confronted by honest white men who tell you to your face what the others all say behind your back?" </i> Later in the speech, he continued: <i>"I am not afraid to stand here and tell you I hate race-mixing and will fight it to the death, but at the same time, I will do everything in my power to help the Honorable Elijah Muhammad carry out his inspired plan for land of your own in Africa. Elijah Muhammad is right. Separation or death!" </i><br />
<br />
It absolutely stuns me that an avowed white racist could stand before 12,000 radical militant blacks at a rally in Chicago, call them "niggers" and walk out of there unharmed. But in fact, Elijah Muhammad actually criticized the audience in a later article for behaving somewhat coldly to Rockwell's speech and not applauding more.<br />
<br />
Malcolm X clearly was uncomfortable with such associations. His father, a Christian black separatist, had been killed allegedly by white supremacists. Near the end of his life, he disavowed these associations. After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm sent a telegram to Rockwell and the Nazis:<br />
<br />
<i>"This is to warn you that I am no longer held in check from fighting white supremacists by Elijah Muhammad's separatist Black Muslim movement, and that if your present racist agitation against our people there in Alabama causes physical harm to Reverend King or any other black Americans who are only attempting to enjoy their rights as free human beings, that you and your Ku Klux Klan friends will be met with maximum physical retaliation..."</i><br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-02-11T04_45_43-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
<b>Further Reading</b><br />
<br />
You can view a video of Malcolm X discussing is KKK meeting here:<br />
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dFORyPoTrJo">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dFORyPoTrJo</a><br />
<br />
The text of Malcolm's speech:<br />
<a href="http://disciplesofmalcolm.tumblr.com/post/55941752243">http://disciplesofmalcolm.tumblr.com/post/55941752243</a><br />
<br />
An article discussing the Nation of Islam's association with the American Nazi Party:<br />
<a href="http://www.vice.com/read/when-malcolm-x-met-the-nazis-0000620-v22n4">http://www.vice.com/read/when-malcolm-x-met-the-nazis-0000620-v22n4</a><br />
<br />
More on the Nation of Islam and the American Nazis.<br />
<a href="http://www.anthonyflood.com/rockwellelijah.htm">http://www.anthonyflood.com/rockwellelijah.htm</a><br />
<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-62153303247203884412016-02-13T08:37:00.000-05:002017-02-04T06:38:57.896-05:00Before Rosa ParksListen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-02-04T03_24_12-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
Most of us have heard the story of a black woman who stood up to segregation in Montgomery Alabama by refusing to give up her seat on the bus to a white person. She then led a legal battle all the way to the Supreme Court to see such laws struck down as unconstitutional. That woman of course is the famous Claudette Colvin. Perhaps you were thinking Rosa Parks, but you would be wrong.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_DlbZQehfXkc46hyphenhyphenpIeb992XvX5X4PRCUu9vuppHgOLSoeoeU4OyyhHzVo-s1MpmlSRnuUAA1Jc1KF2vyOhBjBfqhmK-J2zO_5ATAfmq3kSrkGiTeyxjYsG_6_c7sYUKZaQpkhlEWDGmD/s1600/claudette-colvin.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_DlbZQehfXkc46hyphenhyphenpIeb992XvX5X4PRCUu9vuppHgOLSoeoeU4OyyhHzVo-s1MpmlSRnuUAA1Jc1KF2vyOhBjBfqhmK-J2zO_5ATAfmq3kSrkGiTeyxjYsG_6_c7sYUKZaQpkhlEWDGmD/s200/claudette-colvin.jpg" width="130" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Claudette Colvin</td></tr>
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On March 2, 1955, 15 year old Claudette Colvin was riding home from school on a public bus in Montgomery Alabama. White people sat in the front seats while "colored" people as they were called at the time had to sit in the back. Ms. Colvin dutifully took her seat in the back of the bus, near the front of the colored section. However, as the bus made its rounds, the bus began to fill up. In such cases, the white section got pushed further back to make more seats available for white passengers. Black passengers would have to give up their seats and stand. Even more obnoxious in this case, there was an empty seat across the aisle from where Ms. Colvin was sitting. A white passenger had sat down there and everyone was seated. But the law prevented colored passengers even from sitting in the same row as white passengers. Colvin essentially had to give up her seat so that it could remain empty, simply because a white woman had sat down in the same row.<br />
<br />
The bus driver demanded Colvin give up her seat. She refused saying <i>"It's my constitutional right to sit here as much as that lady. I paid my fare, it's my constitutional right."</i> In a later interview with <i>Newsweek</i> magazine, she said: <i>"I felt like Sojourner Truth was pushing down on one shoulder and Harriet Tubman was pushing down on the other—saying, 'Sit down girl!' I was glued to my seat.</i>" Colvin had been on the bus with several of her friends. Apparently, all but one of them obeyed the bus driver's orders. The other friend remained seated next to Colvin until the police arrived, then lost her nerve and obeyed the police order to get out of the seat. At that point, Colvin was alone.<br />
<br />
Many years later, Ms. Colvin described her arrest in another account:<br />
<br />
<i>"Well, they asked me to get up, and I refused. And one of the policemen was a traffic policeman at Court Square. And he yelled to the bus motorman that he had no jurisdiction here, and he got off. So the bus driver moved the bus to Bibb and Commerce, and then two squad car policemen came on the bus. And they—I became more defiant. And when they asked me the same question, and the gal, "Why are you sitting there?" I said, "It’s my constitutional right. I paid my fare; it’s my constitutional right." And he said, "Constitutional rights?" And then one kicked at me, and when one—and he knocked the books out of my hand—out of my lap. And then one grabbed one arm, and one grabbed the other, and they manhandled me off the bus. And after I got into the squad car, they handcuffed me through the window and took me to booking and then to—not to a juvenile facility, but to an adult jail. And I stayed in jail three—approximately three hours, until my pastor, Reverend H.H. Johnson, and my mother came and bailed me out."</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
According to the police, she struggled against their attempts to arrest her. She kicked and scratched the officers. You can read the arresting officers' account in the <a href="http://okra.stanford.edu/transcription/document_images/undecided/550302-001.pdf">original arrest record</a>. She was charged, not only with violating segregation laws, but also misconduct and resisting arrest. She was tried as a juvenile, found to be a juvenile delinquent, and put on probation.<br />
<br />
By all accounts, Colvin's decision to resist was a spontaneous one. She had been learning about the growing resistance to the racial injustice in Montgomery's African-American Community. In some of her accounts she alludes to the fact that her school had just finished black history month (yes, some places had that even in the 1950's) and that she was inspired by those stories. Her reaction that day though, seemed to be one made without much forethought.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A segregated bus in Montgomery, Alabama</td></tr>
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The African-American community was rallied by this injustice and began to hold meetings as people tried to decide how to react. There was some discussion of a bus boycott and the local NAACP chapter considered bringing a civil suit. In the end though, they decided that Colvin would not make a good public face for the issue. There are a variety of reasons given by different people. Some said that she looked "too black" and that it would be better to have a lighter skinned more attractive woman as the poster child of this injustice. Some argued that as a teenager, she might not be up to all of the controversy she would have to face. Some were concerned about the fact that she had apparently fought the police and might be seen as a violent, out of control teenager. In a later interview, Ms. Colvin commented <i>"I knew why they chose Rosa. They thought I would be too militant for them. They wanted someone mild and genteel like Rosa."</i> A few months after the incident, Ms. Colvin, still a teenager, became pregnant, allegedly from a married man. That seemed to settle the matter. Her personal story now seemed just too scandalous.<br />
<br />
Nine months later, in December 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested for the same offense. Ms. Parks was a lighter skinned woman deemed more attractive and an adult who could manage herself well in the spotlight. She was an employee of the NAACP and some argue that she deliberately provoked police into arresting her so she could be the flash point of a real challenge to the law. I think provocation is a strong word. It seems Ms. Parks, who rode the bus to and from work, sat at the front of the "colored" section of the bus when possible, and probably resolved ahead of time that if asked to move she would refuse. But resolving to refuse an unconstitutional order is not provocation. It is simply standing up for one's rights. By the time of Ms. Parks' arrest, the African-American community was organized and ready to begin the now famous bus boycott. Rosa Parks became the poster child and a young Montgomery pastor named Martin Luther King Jr. began a civil rights movement.<br />
<br />
Claudette Colvin's story, however, did not end with Rosa Parks' arrest. Lawyers on behalf of Parks filed suit in Alabama State Court. It appeared that the State judiciary was going to drag out the case forever so that it would take years to get either a positive resolution or a final decision that could be appealed to federal court. As a second option, lawyers representing Claudette Colvin and three of her friends from the bus that day filed suit directly in federal court. That case, decided by a three judge panel in district court found Alabama's bus segregation laws unconstitutional A few months later, in December 1956, the Supreme Court refused to overturn that finding, making the decision final. Days later, Montgomery began to allow all riders to use buses on a non-segregated basis and the boycott ended. It was Colvin's case, not Parks' case, that ended bus segregation in Montgomery.<br />
<br />
Claudette Colvin was active in the NAACP, but like many black activists, she was seen as a trouble maker by the white community and could not find work in Alabama. In 1958, at age 18, she moved to New York City where she eventually found work as a nurse's aide in a Manhattan retirement home. She worked there for the next 35 years, with few of her coworkers knowing about her civil rights record. Although she is retired now, Claudette Colvin still lives in New York City.<br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-02-04T03_24_12-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
<b>Further Reading</b><br />
<br />
<a href="https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-papers/documents/arrest-report-claudette-colvin">https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-papers/documents/arrest-report-claudette-colvin</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://kingencyclopedia.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/encyclopedia/enc_browder_v_gayle/">http://kingencyclopedia.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/encyclopedia/enc_browder_v_gayle/</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.democracynow.org/2013/3/29/the_other_rosa_parks_now_73">http://www.democracynow.org/2013/3/29/the_other_rosa_parks_now_73</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.biography.com/people/claudette-colvin-11378">http://www.biography.com/people/claudette-colvin-11378</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2015/02/27/389563788/before-rosa-parks-a-teenager-defied-segregation-on-an-alabama-bus">http://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2015/02/27/389563788/before-rosa-parks-a-teenager-defied-segregation-on-an-alabama-bus</a><br />
<br />
<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pW80tV31eL0">https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pW80tV31eL0</a><br />
<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-67158030291029321872016-01-30T06:54:00.001-05:002017-01-28T07:36:54.901-05:00The History of Primaries and CaucusesListen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-01-28T04_31_19-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
It is a well established tradition that becoming President requires campaigning in early caucus and primary states such as Iowa and New Hampshire. All presidential candidates head out to the early States to garner support. But this was not always the case. In fact, selecting Presidential candidates this way is a relatively new process. For most of US history, there were no primary elections. They did not become the primary selection method until less than 50 years ago.<br />
<br />
<b>Early Elections</b><br />
<br />
The Constitution says nothing about political parties, primaries, anything else about how one gets to be a candidate for President. The nation's founders, in fact, despised political parties. They saw them as dangerously creating divisive factions in the country. They were not wrong on that point.<br />
<br />
But by the time Thomas Jefferson became President in 1801 though, the country was well on its way to having two established political parties. Even so, they still had no established method for a party to choose its candidates. Members of Congress and State government leaders informally decided among themselves who should stand as the Party's candidate. Often, State legislatures would nominate a local candidate. For example, Andrew Jackson started his 1828 campaign by being nominated by the Tennessee legislature. It was also considered taboo for a candidate to seek the nomination himself. Doing so smacked of being power hungry and therefore a possible threat to the Republic. Such a candidate might try to make himself King. Nominations and campaigns were run through proxies. Candidates spoke little if at all themselves during the campaign.<br />
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<b>The First Conventions</b><br />
<br />
By the 1820's the informal selection process became too unwieldy. In September 1831, the first National political convention took place in Baltimore. Like many political innovations, this convention was the creation of a minor party. The "Anti-masonic" party which opposed the influence of the Masons in government, met at a national convention to select a candidate for the 1832 elections. Only 10 States out of 24 even sent delegates, with 96 in total attending. They selected William Wirt, who ironically had once been a Mason.<br />
<br />
Only a couple of months later, the "National Republican" party, a forerunner of the Whig party met, also in Baltimore to select someone to run against Democratic President Andrew Jackson. Only 18 of the 24 States bothered to send 135 delegates. They selected Henry Clay, who had stood as a candidate in the 1828 elections as well. Clay did not need a Convention to get the party behind him. His nomination was obvious before the Convention started. The convention served as a tool to energize party leaders and make the process a little more transparent.<br />
<br />
That same campaign season, in May 1832, the Democratic Party also held its first national convention, also in Baltimore. The city of Baltimore was popular mostly because it was close to DC, since most delegates were members of Congress. DC itself did not have many large non-governmental buildings at the time to serve as convention halls. Baltimore was also a relatively central location between the northern and southern states.<br />
<br />
Since Andrew Jackson was running for a second term, the nomination was a foregone conclusion. The main purpose of the Convention was to select a new Vice Presidential candidate. The incumbent Vice President John C. Calhoun, had proven not to be a team player with the Administration. The Convention selected New York politician Martin Van Buren to run with Jackson on the Democratic ticket.<br />
<br />
National Conventions caught on in a big way, held every four years by the major parties, and most minor parties as well. They quickly became a fundamental part of the campaign process. But there was still no established way to select delegates to the convention. For the most part, delegates were political and party leaders meeting to work out a deal. In some cases, they simply showed up themselves at the convention. In other cases, they were selected by local party leaders or by local State conventions, which again were simply gatherings of local politicians and party leaders.<br />
<br />
<b>The First Presidential Primaries</b><br />
<br />
Political primaries, that is actually holding an election to pick convention delegates was a 20th century invention. Florida passed the first Presidential primary law in 1901, to be used for the 1904 elections. The innovation took off relatively quickly. By the 1912 elections, most States had some sort of election process in place to select delegates. Many Primaries served as statewide polls that just gave input to party leaders on voter preferences. In most States the political parties ran the primaries without State governments playing any role in the process.<br />
<br />
Over the next few decades, not much happened with primaries. Some states even abandoned them citing high costs and low voter participation. Party bosses remained in control of the nominations and voters did not see the primary votes as more then window dressing.<br />
<br />
It was not until after WWII that primaries began to play more of a serious role in Presidential elections. Sen. Estes Kefauver (D-TN) entered all 15 primaries held in 1952, winning 11 of them. He hoped that his primary success would convince political bosses to hand him the nomination. His early wins did convince President Truman not to seek a third term. However, the political bosses were not impressed and nominated Adlai Stevenson, who was in turn trounced by Dwight Eisenhower. Primaries still remained relatively unpopular. Political bosses controlled who the nominee would be.<br />
<br />
Primaries could sometimes have an influence. For example, John Kennedy proved he could win southern Protestant support, despite being a Catholic, by entering and winning the West Virginia Primary in 1960. Even so, despite winning 10 of the 14 primaries held that year, Kennedy almost lost the nomination to Lyndon Johnson who had not entered nor won a single primary.<br />
<br />
<b>The Disaster of 1968</b><br />
<br />
The real changes came after the 1968 elections. The 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago was an unmitigated disaster. New Hampshire, one of the few primary States, handed incumbent President Lyndon Johnson a very disappointing result. Shortly after that, Johnson decided not to run for reelection, throwing the field into chaos. Robert Kennedy entered the race as a favorite, only to be shot and killed in June while campaigning.<br />
<br />
The party became hopelessly fractured. There was already a rift between the civil rights position of northern Democrats and the segregationist southern Democrats. If that was not enough, young people were strongly opposed to the war in Vietnam and wanted a peace candidate. The political bosses got behind Vice President Hubert Humphrey as the Convention nominee. Humphrey, who had not won a single primary, had recently voiced some opposition over the War, but had largely supported the Administration's Vietnam policies over the prior four years. Peace activists were not happy and protested the convention. When the Chicago police used violence, captured on national television, to suppress the protests, an internal civil war broke out in the convention itself.<br />
<br />
Humphrey left the Convention as a weak candidate opposed by much of his own party. Young people opposed to the war either voted Republican or stayed home. Southerners, opposed to Humphrey's support of Civil Rights, voted for southerner George Wallace. The result was an easy and overwhelming victory for Republican Richard Nixon.<br />
<br />
<b>Modern Era Primary Reforms </b><br />
<br />
In the wake of this disastrous defeat, the Democrats decided to introduce some major reforms. Although many of these reforms impacted how the conventions would be run, they also stressed the importance of taking into account primary results in selecting the nominee. State delegations had to be selected by primary or some other process that was open to all members of the State party. If party bosses ignored the wishes of the voters, that would only need to further losses in the national elections. Primaries were seen as a way to guarantee popular support. All fifty States held a primary or caucus in 1972 for the first time.<br />
<br />
Despite the increased participation, the party remained hopelessly divided in 1972. George McGovern won the most State primaries, while Humphrey won the most primary votes overall. Party bosses deeply opposed McGovern, who had been in charge of many of the reforms that helped him ultimately win the election at the divided Convention. Without the enthusiastic support of party leaders, McGovern went on to hand the Party its worst loss in history, up until that time.<br />
<br />
With all the States holding Primaries, there were more efforts to organize their scheduling. New rules required that all States hold their elections between March and June of the Presidential election year. Two exceptions were made for the Iowa caucuses and the New Hampshire Primary, which were permitted to earlier contests<br />
<br />
<b>The Iowa Caucus</b><br />
<br />
Iowa became first mostly by accident. It retained a caucus rather than a primary. After the 1968 elections, party rules required that all aspects of candidate selection be opened to all members of the party. Iowa had a four part selection process. There had to be a precinct caucus, which selected delegates to a county convention, which in turn sent delegates to a district convention, which then sent delegates to a State convention, which would in turn select delegates to go to the national convention. There had to be at least a 30 day period in between each step of the process. This meant the precinct caucuses had to be held in February at the latest in order to have delegates at the national convention in July. To ensure proper time, the Caucuses for 1972 were held in late January.<br />
<br />
They were so early that year, that few people in the press even paid much attention. The candidates mostly ignored Iowa in 1972 and it was a non-event nationally. All that changed, however, in 1976. A young relatively unknown Governor named Jimmy Carter decided to run for President. In 1973, he appeared on the Game Show "What's My Line?" No one on the panel could guess who he was or what he did for quite some time. He was really unknown.<br />
<br />
Carter completed his single term as Governor of Georgia in January 1975. He had already begun making plans to run for President. As a relative unknown, he decided that if he could win the Iowa Caucus, that would give him the national recognition he would need to continue on through the process to the nomination. As a result, Carter spent most of 1975 in Iowa meeting with locals and talking about what he would do as President. Since no other candidates were in Iowa, Carter was able to win over support one voter at a time.<br />
<br />
The strategy worked. Carter won more votes than any other candidate in a wide open field, garnering 27% of the vote. The next highest candidate, Birch Bayh received less than half that, 13%. Of course "uncommitted" won the race with 37%. But the fact that an unknown southern former Governor could win the State, set off a press frenzy around the Carter campaign. It gave him the national recognition he needed to win the future primaries, the party nomination, and eventually the White House.<br />
<br />
Following the 1976 elections, all serious candidates have made at least some effort to make a good showing in Iowa. Although the Iowa Caucus does not often pick the candidate who ultimately wins the nomination, It has become the de facto process for winnowing down the field. If you don't finish in the top three in Iowa, your campaign is pretty much over. Only one candidate has ever gone on to win the nomination after a fourth place finish in Iowa (John McCain in 2008). Technically, I suppose, Bill Clinton finished fourth in 1992, behind two other candidates as well as "uncommitted". But he was running against an Iowa Senator (Tom Harkin). Since Harkin would presumably win his home State, Clinton did not spend much time there.<br />
<br />
<b>New Hampshire Primary</b><br />
<br />
New Hampshire had been one of the few primary states long before the 1968 reforms. It has held a Presidential primary since 1916. Beginning in 1920, it became the first primary for the election year. For many years, this was simply the way things worked out. Most States did not have primaries. Those that did usually had them in late spring or early summer. New Hampshire soon realized that being first meant that it got noticed more. The State eventually passed a law requiring that the State hold the first primary in each Presidential election. The primary, once held in mid March, eventually got pushed back to early February, and sometimes late January, in order to be first.<br />
<br />
The 1968 reforms recognized New Hampshire's need to be first and granted the State an exception to the requirement that all primaries be held in March or later. With this one State exception, it guaranteed New Hampshire continued prominence in the election process. States have since tried to find ways to push their primaries in advance of New Hampshire, but the Parties have not allowed it. Limits on early primaries too many months before the convention were designed to prevent the campaign process from being stretched over too long a period and allowing for intervening events to make an early choice problematic. As a result, New Hampshire remains the first primary outside of the main primary season, usually a week or two after the Iowa Caucus.<br />
<br />
<b>Later Reforms</b><br />
<br />
Changes have continued as South Carolina has been given "early State" status in order to be more inclusive of Southern voters. As more and more states want to hold early primaries within the allowed limits the tradition of "Super Tuesday" has arisen on the first Tuesday within the dates permitted by party rules.<br />
<br />
You may have noticed that I have primarily focused on the Democratic Party while discussing the development of primaries and caucuses. The reality is that most of the reforms have been the result of Democratic Party Reforms. The Republicans have generally followed the same process. Since State laws instituted primary elections for both parties, both adopted most of the changes at relatively the same time.<br />
<br />
Today the primaries and a few caucuses dominate the selection process. It is almost always the case that a candidate is chosen by receiving enough delegates to secure a majority at the convention long before the convention takes place. As a result, conventions have largely become attempts by the Parties to advertise themselves, their platform and their candidates. <br />
<br />
Both parties have "superdelegates" which is the polite name given to modern day party bosses. These are delegates beyond those chosen in the primaries. They usually make up elected officials and State party leaders, as well as members of the national Party Committees. As currently selected, Superdelegates are new. They are the result of reforms for the 1984 elections after Democratic leaders decided that too much popular input had led to weak candidates in recent elections. Even so, superdelegates have never rejected the choice of the primary voters.<br />
<br />
<b>Conventions Become Irrelevant</b><br />
<br />
Since the 1968 reforms, only one Convention was ever really in question. In 1976 incumbent President Ford faced a challenge from Gov. Ronald Reagan Ford had the most primary votes but not an outright majority. Still, Ford was able to win on the first ballot. In 1980, Ted Kennedy attempted to take the nomination from incumbent Jimmy Carter, who had won a slim majority of delegates, by trying to encourage delegates to jump ship and oppose the will of the primary voters. In the end though, Carter was nominated on the first ballot. In 1984, candidate Walter Mondale was just a few votes short of a majority of primary selected delegates. But his closest competitor Gary Hart, never mounted a serious convention challenge <br />
<br />
In 2008 a close primary election between Hillary Clinton and Barak Obama led to a possible convention fight. Obama had won a majority of primary votes. But Florida and Michigan did not receive any delegate votes that year. Both States had attempted to hold primaries in advance of New Hampshire, in violation of Party rules. Clinton had campaigned heavily in both States and had won substantial majorities in those illegal primaries. Clinton argued that the delegates should be given their vote. Clinton had also secured pledges from a large number of superdelegates. However, as the primary season came to an end, superdelegates were unwilling to overturn the will of the primary voters and largely defected from Clinton to Obama. As a result, the nominee was decided before the Convention opened.<br />
<br />
<b> Conclusion</b><br />
<br />
As much as we like to think about our electoral process as a tradition. A voter from fifty years ago would hardly recognize the primary process today. A voter from 100 years ago would likely be shocked to see that primaries even play a significant role. A voter from 200 years ago (still 40 years after the Declaration of Independence) likely would be surprised to see the use of political parties or conventions. Many of our traditions are younger than most of our senior citizens alive today. It remains an evolving process with new changes in each election.<br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-01-28T04_31_19-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
<b>Further Reading</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<i>The First American Political Conventions</i><br />
<a href="http://history1800s.about.com/od/presidentialcampaigns/a/politconvent01.htm">http://history1800s.about.com/od/presidentialcampaigns/a/politconvent01.htm</a><br />
<b><br /></b>
<i>Choosing the Nominee: How Presidential
Primaries Came To Be and Their Future in
American Politics </i><br />
<a href="http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3291&context=honors_theses">http://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3291&context=honors_theses</a><br />
<br />
<i>Iowa Caucus Rules</i><br />
<a href="http://www.whyiowa.org/Why%20Iowa%20Chapter%203.pdf">http://www.whyiowa.org/Why%20Iowa%20Chapter%203.pdf</a><br />
<br />
<i>Why is the New Hampshire Primary so Important? </i><br />
<a href="http://www.beliefnet.com/columnists/news/2012/01/why-is-newhampshires-primary-so-important.php">http://www.beliefnet.com/columnists/news/2012/01/why-is-newhampshires-primary-so-important.php</a><br />
<br />
<i>The Primary Experience: Jimmy Who?</i><br />
<a href="http://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/the-primary-experiment-jimmy-who">http://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/the-primary-experiment-jimmy-who</a><br />
<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-18716809809375501342016-01-16T06:55:00.002-05:002017-01-21T07:23:13.610-05:00America: Built by LotteryListen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-01-21T04_08_48-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of these episode.<br />
<br />
With the recent record $1.6 Billion Powerball lottery over now, I got to thinking about the history of lotteries. They can be traced back to ancient times, with examples all over the world and throughout most of human history. Today I thought I would focus on the history of lottery in creation of the United States and its rebirth in modern times.<br />
<br />
<b>Lottery to finance Jamestown, Virginia</b><br />
<br />
The first permanent British Colony in America, Jamestown Virginia, relied on financing from wealthy investors, the 17th Century equivalent of venture capitalists. But the colony was slow to show a profit and investors were loath to continue dumping more of their own money into the venture. So, the financiers received permission from King James to hold a lottery for The Virginia Company.<br />
<br />
The First Great Standing Lottery took place in March 1612. Players could purchase a ticket for 2s. 6d. That is two shillings and six pence. Under the old system of British currency, one pound (£) equaled 20 shillings (s) or 240 pennies (d) - "d" being used from the Latin "denarius". <br />
<br />
Tickets were not cheap. A common laborer would usually earn less than on shilling per day. But the prizes were also valuable. The lottery offered a variety of prizes worth a total of £5,000. These included a "fayre plate" worth £1,000, more than a common laborer would earn in a lifetime.. Still, the lottery was not as successful as hoped. The drawing which had been scheduled for May had to be postponed until the end of June. The lottery had not sold enough tickets, in part because of rumors of a fixed result. In the end, the lottery did help raise desperately needed funds for the colony.<br />
<br />
The company held smaller lotteries, known as the "Little Standing Lottery" throughout 1612 and 1613. Tickets were a mere 12d, with smaller prizes . At the same time, the company started the Second Great Standing Lottery during the summer of 1612, with a hefty 5s ticket. Ticket sales took over three years, with the drawing finally held on November 17, 1615.<br />
<br />
In 1616, the company began "running lotteries." Rather than waiting for a final drawing day, running lotteries allowed people to draw lots which meant they could win a prize immediately or nothing. These were the equivalent of modern scratch off tickets. The company sent its agents Gabriel Barbor and Lott Peere, travelling throughout the country side to raise money. The agents got the support of local authorities by providing personal gifts. Gaining local support was critical to building trust that the games were honest. Drawings were typically held in the presence of local officials, with a local child pulling the lucky lots.<br />
<br />
Many of the details of these local lotteries are not available, but records for a 1618 lottery run in Leicester show the games lasted for six weeks. Players could purchase some of the forty thousand lots were available for sale at 12d. each, with chances to win over 1,500 prizes. The total value of all lots was £2000, with about half that amount distributed as gifts and prizes. By one estimate, the company's profit for this one lottery was £961, an amount that would pay for an entire ship's voyage to the new world.<br />
<br />
The Virginia Company reported £7,000 in lottery earnings for 1619, the bulk of its total cash on hand in 1620: £9,831. Clearly lotteries were a profitable business, covering much of the expenses the Jamestown colony that continued to hemorrhage cash.<br />
<br />
There were, of course, critics to allowing this private company to raise such fortunes. Some critics focused on claims of cheating and corruption. But a prime complaint was simply that wealth was being sucked out of the working poor who could least afford it.<br />
<br />
Sir Lionel Cranfield spoke about this in the House of Commons on February 24, 1621: <i>"I am of the Company of Virginia, but I hear these lotteries do beggar [impoverish] every country they come into. Let Virginia lose rather than England."</i> Public criticism of the lottery grew louder and the King eventually shut down the lotteries.<br />
<br />
<b>Colonial Lotteries</b><br />
<br />
Colonial lotteries began to take shape in the mid-1700's. Massachusetts had already subjected its citizens to heavy poll taxes and estate taxes and was still struggling to pay its bills. Despite a strong Puritan opposition to gambling of any sort, the Colony decided that it would hold a lottery to raise funds in 1745. <br />
<br />
The Colony planned to sell 25,000 tickets at a cost of 30s (£1.5) per ticket. The lottery would be overseen by a Board of Directors made up of leading figures in the colony: Samuel Watts, John Quincy, James Bowdoin, Robert Hale and Thomas Hutchinson.<br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFYaqtLoEMnkfEzpxomBICyWT7MKhu9pjE76dBPrLw7c2To4oG4ayeDrYOPxXbgJW3DdY8mgKP5bHlhntk7o5WCZqBn2l5g568ZmSwaLd0kiRyaLEzaP5fhzR4ePDZTLOpmwjqvsPxsCjc/s1600/Lottery-MA-1744.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="100" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgFYaqtLoEMnkfEzpxomBICyWT7MKhu9pjE76dBPrLw7c2To4oG4ayeDrYOPxXbgJW3DdY8mgKP5bHlhntk7o5WCZqBn2l5g568ZmSwaLd0kiRyaLEzaP5fhzR4ePDZTLOpmwjqvsPxsCjc/s320/Lottery-MA-1744.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Massachusetts Colony lottery ticket.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The process of selection seems rather complicated. Each player received a numbered ticket, one to keep and one put in a box. All 25,000 tickets were placed on one box. 25,000 more tickets were placed in a second box. On drawing day, officials would draw one play ticket and one prize ticket from each box. If the prize ticket was blank, the player got nothing. If the ticket contained a prize, officials would write the player's name on a list for payment of the amount won. This process meant hand drawing all 50,000 tickets to determine the winners, a rather lengthy process. <br />
<br />
The total amount collected from the sale of all tickets was £37,500. Prizes ranged from two top awards of £1250, to 5250 awards of £3,15s (about double your money back). There were a total of 5422 awards, meaning your chances of winning something was about 25%. To total amount awarded as prizes was £37,500. But wait, you may ask yourself. If total tickets sales was £37,500 and total award money was £37,500, how did they make money?<br />
<br />
The answer is with taxes. Each award came with a 20% tax, meaning the winner only received 80% of the award amount. Total collections from taxes would be £7,500, minus the costs of running the lottery.<br />
<br />
According to the rules set up by the legislature, the lottery, which began selling tickets in January, had to hold the drawing on or before April 9. However, according to <i>The Boston Weekly Post Boy</i> April 8, 1745, the lottery had to be postponed until June 4th because there were still unsold tickets. Fears grew that the Colony might lose money if it had to pay out awards in excess of the amount collected from ticket sales.<br />
<br />
Eventually, however, all the tickets were sold and the lottery drawing was started. The <i>Boston Evening Post </i>of June 10, 1745 mentioned the lottery drawing had begun several days earlier at Faneuil Hall, with the drawing still continuing. Finally, on June 18, the <i>Boston Gazette</i> reported that the lottery office in Faneuil Hall had a record of all winning ticket numbers. Anyone could could go to check their tickets.<br />
<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEEhX7b71ASwzN6AObnHgByt8ejOkEIM2wMm4-_8L-2UFbEXOvsk_7bl4guGqcvkSGeAbI551aPxvQN9jDeVhUawa4dFo9ir_UWqSlsPRdEzP1XoUx1PYcyZiaziFovIsABuii96GXQVSe/s1600/george-washington-lottery-3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="237" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEEhX7b71ASwzN6AObnHgByt8ejOkEIM2wMm4-_8L-2UFbEXOvsk_7bl4guGqcvkSGeAbI551aPxvQN9jDeVhUawa4dFo9ir_UWqSlsPRdEzP1XoUx1PYcyZiaziFovIsABuii96GXQVSe/s320/george-washington-lottery-3.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lottery Ticket, Signed by George Washington</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Despite some trouble with timely ticket sales and the delays in completing the drawing, the lottery was generally considered a success. It raised needed funds for the colony and people generally seemed satisfied with the fairness of it. This seemed to be the beginning of lottery fever in the US. Rhode Island held a lottery later that same year, the first of 82 lotteries that it would hold before the Revolution. Philadelphia held a lottery in 1748. Soon lotteries became the preferred method of raising money for any public project. Not all were run by the government. For example, when George Washington headed a project to build a road in Virginia to a Mountain resort in development, he sold lottery tickets to finance the project. The lottery itself turned out to be a disaster, but the tickets, with Washington's signature on them, have become valuable collector's items. Some lotteries from this period even offered slaves as a prize to be won.<br />
<br />
Nonexistent a generation earlier, Colonial lotteries popped up almost everywhere. They financed a wide variety of projects, but also raising societal concerns. In 1769, King George III outlawed all lotteries that did not have the Crown's explicit approval. With that approval extremely difficult to obtain, lotteries in the colonies came to a halt.<br />
<br />
<b>Lotteries during the Revolution.</b><br />
<br />
Well, the lotteries did not so much come to a halt, more like a short pause. As the American Revolution got underway in the 1770's, colonies and later States at war with Britain no longer felt constrained by the King's decrees. Numerous lotteries were commenced to finance the Revolution. Benjamin Franklin organized a lottery in Philadelphia to pay for canon. In 1776, the Continental Congress attempted a $10 million lottery to help finance the war, though the project ended up floundering and was never completed.<br />
<br />
As taxes were highly unpopular and often impossible to collect, lotteries became a good way of collecting money from the common population. Alexander Hamilton, summed up the age old appeal of lotteries: “Everybody … will be willing to hazard a trifling sum for the chance of considerable gain … and would prefer a small chance of winning a great deal to a great chance of winning little.”<br />
<br />
<b>Early US lotteries</b><br />
<br />
States continued to hold lotteries and allow private lotteries in some cases in the newly formed United States. Lotteries often supported special projects such the building of canals or public buildings. Some supported universities. Thomas Jefferson received permission from Virginia to hold a private lottery late in his life in order to pay off some of his personal debts. Although he died before the lottery could be held, it was eventually completed by his estate.<br />
<br />
The federal government made no attempt to restrict lotteries. In fact, it organized a few of its own. Congress created a national lottery to help pay for construction in the District of Columbia. In fact, one of these resulted in a US Supreme Court case after Virginia tried to bar the sale of federal lottery tickets within the State. Virginia wanted to retain a monopoly on lotteries. The Court in <i>Cohens v. Virginia </i>(1821)<i> </i>sided with the State, holding that Congress had never intended the sale of tickets outside of DC.<br />
<br />
<b>Lotteries fall out of favor</b><br />
<br />
Then, in the 1830's public opinion began to turn against lotteries. Several lottery scams helped turn public opinion against gambling. Traditional religious opposition to gambling, combined with social reform movements that saw the cost of gambling with no real societal benefit caused many leaders to decide it was a harm to society that needed to be abolished.<br />
<br />
In 1833, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts and New York banned all lotteries. Other States soon followed. By 1860, only three states still permitted lotteries: Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky. Although it was illegal, many enterprises sold lottery tickets for these States throughout the country. After the Civil War, a federal law made it illegal to use the US mail to distribute lottery tickets.<br />
<br />
But the reconstruction years were hard times. In 1868, the Louisiana legislature was desperate for money. Its notoriously corrupt legislature made a deal with a criminal syndicate from New York to create a State lottery with a 25 year charter, and establishing the syndicate as the sole lottery provider. The Louisiana Lottery became wildly popular throughout the country, despite restrictions on using US mail. About 90% of its revenues came from out of state sales. Louisiana soon became the only legal lottery in the US. Finally in 1895, Congress barred any transmission of lottery tickets across State lines by any means. With out of state sales becoming impossible, the Louisiana lottery was abolished. <br />
<br />
With the death of the Louisiana Lottery, all States had outlawed lotteries. Many had added such prohibitions to their State Constitutions. For nearly three generations, Americans would not have any options to play the lottery legally anywhere in the US.<br />
<br />
While legal lotteries disappeared, gamblers turned to organized crime for their lottery fix. The "numbers racket" grew increasingly popular in many cities. Most of these operated much like the daily lotteries run by States today. A random three digit number would give a pay out, usually of 600 to 1. Because no one trusted criminal syndicates to pick the numbers, and because they could not be picked in a public drawing, groups used relatively random numbers as the award. One group, for example, used the last three digits of the published balance of the US treasury. Another, used the last digit of dollar pay outs for win, place, and show for a particular local horse race. These methods generated random three digit numbers that no one could easily manipulate.<br />
<br />
Other Americans turned abroad. The Irish sweepstakes began in 1930. It derived most of its revenue from US purchases. The importation and sale of such tickets in the US was illegal. Nevertheless, the Irish Sweepstakes became wildly popular for many years.<br />
<br />
<b>Rebirth of the State Lotteries</b><br />
<br />
Legal US lotteries remained nonexistent for decades. Then, in 1964 New Hampshire decided to create a State lottery. The age old desire to raise money without raising taxes make the lure of the lottery too tempting. New Hampshire had no income taxes nor sales taxes and needed revenue.<br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEid2PSgb6kAGyjbi7sol47K_j3ycS-6thdFshvcNF7PNR3NLvVRKr4_ATu9cBGtYDcoZ-mcSN4oO21zDeo75yuV91SCOgU4lrFE83ZxoosA0XmbiK7Rb2d3zSpeTAPcnQMmJLY0wYxAVVWn/s1600/King_NJ_Sweepstakes.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEid2PSgb6kAGyjbi7sol47K_j3ycS-6thdFshvcNF7PNR3NLvVRKr4_ATu9cBGtYDcoZ-mcSN4oO21zDeo75yuV91SCOgU4lrFE83ZxoosA0XmbiK7Rb2d3zSpeTAPcnQMmJLY0wYxAVVWn/s1600/King_NJ_Sweepstakes.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
NH Gov. John King purchases the first</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
legal lottery ticket of the 20th Century</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
(1964)</div>
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</tbody></table>
This, however, was not a simple task. In addition to the many State laws nationwide, there were numerous federal laws designed to prevent lotteries. US officials did not want a replay of the Louisiana Lottery of the previous century where one state benefited from a lottery at the expense of all the others. Not only were there federal laws against using the US mail to distribute any information related to lottery, but any interstate transportation of anything lottery related was banned. This included restrictions on newspapers that carried lottery results, or announcement of any lottery information via TV or radio, and other criminal statutes that made it virtually impossible to create a working lottery.<br />
<br />
New Hampshire attempted to avoid some of the anti-lottery laws by calling the new game a sweepstakes. Winning numbers would be tied to random numbers generated from local horse racing results inside the State. The State had to pay onerous excise taxes to the Federal government, designed to discourage such gambling. All sales were done in state, mostly in liquor stores.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the games enjoyed great popularity. Tickets cost $3 for a chance to win up to $100,000. Despite the strict bans on interstate transport of lottery materials or advertising, most tickets were sold to out-of-state customers from New York, Massachusetts, and elsewhere. The most popular sales outlets sat right at the State border, where travelers could travel to buy their tickets. New Hampshire tourism revenues boomed as many people traveled to New Hampshire primarily to buy lottery tickets as part of a longer vacation. The game was an overwhelming success. <br />
<br />
Nationally, public opinion began to turn quickly. There were still critics of this new legalized gambling which was not only permitted but encouraged by the government. Many, however, saw the new lotteries as a way to take the numbers racket away from organized crime. It also quickly became a tempting source of revenue to State officials. Neighboring States began to develop lotteries of their own. The New York Lottery began in 1969. New Jersey followed in 1970. Massachusetts began a scratch off game in 1974.<br />
<br />
These new State lotteries created difficulties for federal officials since many of them seemed to be run in violation of federal anti-lottery laws. In 1974, the Department of Justice considered criminal prosecution of some state officials whose lotteries were flouting federal law. But popular opinion seemed squarely in support of State lotteries. Congress amended federal laws to exempt state run lotteries from federal anti-gambling laws generally. With these changes to the law the DoJ dropped its investigations. <br />
<br />
With the federal government no longer restricting them, lotteries grew and expanded at an accelerated rate. New Hampshire, Vermont, and Maine formed the first multi-state lottery in 1985 in order to offer bigger jackpots and compete with lotteries in larger States.<br />
<br />
Today, lotteries are nearly universal, 44 of 50 States have a State lottery. Only Alabama, Mississippi, Utah, Nevada, Alaska and Hawaii don't have a lottery. Multi-state games such as Powerball or Mega Millions have become billion dollar industries. Lotteries enjoy massive popularity and appear to be here to stay.<br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-01-21T04_08_48-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of these episode.<br />
<br />
<b>Further Reading:</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<a href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Virginia_Company_of_London">http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Virginia_Company_of_London</a> - Early lotteries supporting the Jamestown colony.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<a href="http://www.coins.nd.edu/ColCurrency/CurrencyText/CLT.html">http://www.coins.nd.edu/ColCurrency/CurrencyText/CLT.html</a> - Early Colonial Lotteries.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.naspl.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=content&menuid=11&pageid=1016">http://www.naspl.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=content&menuid=11&pageid=1016</a> - History of Lottery Timeline.<br />
<a href="https://draft.blogger.com/goog_605849157"><br /></a>
<a href="http://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4158&context=clr0">http://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4158&context=clr0</a> - Cornell Law Review <i>Development of the Federal Law of Gambling </i>(1978).<br />
<br />
<a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mm25CgAAQBAJ">https://books.google.com/books?id=mm25CgAAQBAJ</a> - eBook <i>American Sweepstakes</i> by Kevin Flynn (2015)<br />
<br /></div>
Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-23387169074554236632016-01-02T07:28:00.000-05:002017-03-04T07:08:30.922-05:00Submarine Warfare in the American RevolutionListen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-01-14T04_48_39-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
Most people think about submarine warfare beginning with the WWI German U-boats. But military inventors have been looking for ways to use the cloak of underwater travel for centuries.<br />
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The American Revolution saw submarine warfare, although it is not widely remembered as it was not a success. Still, I think it is an amazing example of the daring and ingenuity of the men who fought that war.<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAF68gWOVqDSqFRADe-ioQaEvAxAArXR9wBq2S2fhUOrGadcRrssII0JYwhyXiVK76cMZyk7U6gXF6Y9pOPZYn47-LmVWLW-lVQaJ0WKxB_p4othsUXBuQvVS8byScVvkGV_ds3jgXC0Fv/s1600/The_Turtle.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiAF68gWOVqDSqFRADe-ioQaEvAxAArXR9wBq2S2fhUOrGadcRrssII0JYwhyXiVK76cMZyk7U6gXF6Y9pOPZYn47-LmVWLW-lVQaJ0WKxB_p4othsUXBuQvVS8byScVvkGV_ds3jgXC0Fv/s320/The_Turtle.jpg" width="214" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Artist's rendering of</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Bushnell's Turtle</div>
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<br />
In the summer of 1776, the British fleet arrived in New York Harbor. The Americans had no real navy at the time, certainly nothing that could challenge the British. They were looking for an effective way to attack.<br />
<br />
David Bushnell was a recent graduate of Yale College. While at school, Bushnell worked at developing ways of exploding gunpowder underwater. While underwater explosives are taken for granted today, the ability to ignite a device under water that had to stay dry and needed oxygen in the air to explode properly was quite a challenge at the time. Bushnell was able to develop some effective underwater explosives during his time at school, a project that would likely be widely frowned upon at most colleges today.<br />
<br />
Still getting the explosives to the the ships where they could do damage seemed an impossibility. Guards aboard ship would spot any vessel approaching a warship. They could raise an alarm and fire on any ship before it could get close enough to explode any device. No surface ship could approach a naval vessel, even at night.<br />
<br />
<b>Building the Turtle</b><br />
<br />
David Bushnell and his brother Ezra, as well as a local artisan named Isaac Doolittle began work on a delivery device that could travel under water. They made the vehicle out of oak, held together with iron hoops like a barrel. To travel underwater, they developed what they called a "windmill propeller" but is actually a forerunner of the modern screw propeller that others claimed to have invented half a century later. They used a hand crank and foot treadles, similar to what was used with other machinery of the time, to turn the propellers.<br />
<br />
Snorkels supplied air for the pilot, meaning that the vessel would have to travel near the surface for most of the trip, then rely on the air inside the small operator area when descending near the target. Similarly a small window in the top hatch provided light when on or near the surface, but no light was available during the descent. The pilot controlled descent underwater by allowing water into the bottom of the vessel, around the pilot's feet.<br />
<br />
A small team built an underwater mine, containing about 150 pounds of black powder. A screw would allow it to be attached to the bottom of a ship. Doolittle, who was a clock maker by trade, developed a timing device that would allow the pilot to trigger the device then have a few minutes to escape before a flintlock from a gun fired a spark into the gunpowder to trigger the explosion.<br />
<br />
The team tested the vehicle, named the <i>Turtle</i> for weeks on the Connecticut River. Ezra Bushnell, David's brother, served as the pilot. The plan was to propel the <i>Turtle</i> along the surface at night until it got close to a ship. Then, it would descend underwater, where the pilot would attach the explosive to the bottom of the ship with a screw, set the timing device, and move away before the explosion. With the British fleet in New York Harbor, the team selected Admiral Howe's flag ship, the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Eagle_(1774)">HMS Eagle</a></i> as the target. <br />
<br />
<b>The Attack:</b><br />
<br />
Execution of the plan, however, ran into numerous problems. First the pilot Ezra Bushnell became feverishly ill and was not fit for duty. A new pilot, Ezra Lee had to be trained, taking several more weeks. Eventually the team brought the <i>Turtle</i> to New York Harbor. Lee describes his attempt to reach the enemy ship: <i>“We set off from the City, the Whale boats towed me as nigh the ships as they dare go, and then they cast me off. I soon found that I was too early in the tide, as it carried me down to the [transport] ships. I however, hove about, and rowed for 5 glasses [2½ hours], by the ship’s bells, before the tide slackened so that I could get along side the man of war, which lay above the transports.”</i><br />
<br />
By this time, it was close to dawn and Lee was exhausted. Still he descended underneath the ship and attempted to attach the explosive. <i>“When I rowed under the stern of the ship, could see men and deck and hear them talk-then I shut all doors, sunk down, and came up under the bottom of the ship, up with the screw against the bottom but found that it would not enter.” </i>Sadly for the American effort, the <i>Eagle</i> had a copper cover underneath the ship to prevent barnacles from attaching and slowing down the vessel. The <i>Turtle's </i>screw was designed to bore through wood, but could not pierce the metal.<br />
<br />
Now daylight, Lee decided to make his escape before being discovered. The British saw the vessel and sent several guard boats after him to discover what this was. Lee detached his explosive and set the timing device, hoping to take out his pursuers, and possibly himself as well. He <i>“let loose the magazine in hopes, that if they should take me, they should likewise pick up the magazine, and then we should all be blown up together…”</i> The explosion was not near enough to any vessels to cause any damage, but the distraction was enough to allow Lee to make his escape and reach the shore. <br />
<br />
<b>Later Efforts:</b><br />
<br />
The patriots recovered the <i>Turtle</i> and prepared for a second attempt further up the Hudson river. The British, now alerted to the danger, discovered the vessel on two subsequent attempts to make contact with the enemy and fired upon it. In both cases, the pilot was able to make his escape, but without being able to attach the explosive. Shortly after this, the British nave sank the transport vessel carrying the <i>Turtle</i>. With the loss of the vessel after three unsuccessful attempts, the Patriot submarine project came to an end.<br />
<br />
David Bushnell went on to develop several under water mines that were used against British ships. In 1777 he attempted to use a floating mine to blow up the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Cerberus_(1758)">HMS Cerberus</a></i> near New London Connecticut. The mine struck a smaller boat near the <i>Cerberus. </i>The explosion killed four enemy four sailors and destroyed the boat. The <i>Cerberus, </i>however, escaped. In 1778 Bushnell floated several mines down the Delaware River to attack anchored British ships. The mines missed their targets, but killed two young civilians. <br />
<br />
<b>Bushnell's Career</b><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpegFaeUSMwh-a9oASGI8HOhtYl9zSQE8q2uZVpOpIVmZG2CgPUceUmdPhYpPgHhs7HvJd_DdLbbXIjNZYKDir4YvxLVsC552hXq23VgO6VwNGatPq8faYJNB3cAGfmVFzF85r3eQjqa46/s1600/bushnell.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpegFaeUSMwh-a9oASGI8HOhtYl9zSQE8q2uZVpOpIVmZG2CgPUceUmdPhYpPgHhs7HvJd_DdLbbXIjNZYKDir4YvxLVsC552hXq23VgO6VwNGatPq8faYJNB3cAGfmVFzF85r3eQjqa46/s200/bushnell.jpg" width="157" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">David Bushnell</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Despite a lack of any real success, the Continental Army continued to see potential in Bushnell's efforts. In 1778, General Washington proposed the formation of a new military unit to be known as the "Corps of Sappers and Miners". Bushnell was given command of the Corps in 1779. Near the end of the War in 1783, he became Commander of the Army Corps of Engineers as West Point. There, he continued his work developing new technology for the Army.<br />
<br />
After the war Bushnell left the military. He spent several years in France. Eventually he returned to the US, setting in Georgia where he worked as a college professor and medical Doctor. For unknown reasons, he had changed his name to David Bush. He never married or had any children. He also continued to work on underwater explosives and delivery devices later in life as well. He was still seeking a new contract with the US Army shortly before his death in 1824. A model torpedo was found among his possessions after he died.<br />
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<b>Legacy:</b><br />
<div>
<b><br /></b></div>
The project remained a military secret throughout the war. It did not become generally known until Thomas Jefferson gave a lecture on the subject to the <a href="https://www.amphilsoc.org/about">American Philosophical Society</a> in Philadelphia in 1798. Bushnell had corresponded with Jefferson about the military venture after the war had ended. Submarine warfare, however, was shelved. The US Navy would not commission its first submarine until more than a century later.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
Honored as the father of Submarine Warfare, the US Navy has named two ships <i>USS Bushnell</i>, one<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Bushnell_(AS-2)"> in operation during WWI</a> and a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Bushnell_(AS-15)">second in WWII</a>.<br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-01-14T04_48_39-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
<b>Further Reading:</b><br />
<br />
<a href="http://connecticuthistory.org/david-bushnell-and-his-revolutionary-submarine/">http://connecticuthistory.org/david-bushnell-and-his-revolutionary-submarine</a><br />
<a href="https://draft.blogger.com/goog_1310389468"><br /></a>
<a href="http://biography.yourdictionary.com/david-bushnell">http://biography.yourdictionary.com/david-bushnell</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/08441.htm">http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/08441.htm</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://turtlesubmarine.umwblogs.org/david-bushnell/">http://turtlesubmarine.umwblogs.org/david-bushnell</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.breedshill.org/The_Breeds_Hill_institute/Turtle_Model_files/American%20Turtle%20Book.pdf">http://www.breedshill.org/The_Breeds_Hill_institute/Turtle_Model_files/American%20Turtle%20Book.pdf</a><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-73182040727877758952015-12-19T07:29:00.000-05:002017-01-11T10:53:54.481-05:00Why Do We Celebrate Christmas on December 25?Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-01-07T07_30_22-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
Christians have celebrated Christmas, the birth of Jesus Christ, on December 25th for centuries. Without any real record of Jesus' birth and without any information within a few generations of Jesus' time on earth providing any sort of date, how did we come to decide that Jesus was born on December 25? Nothing in the Bible indicates any particular date. For the first couple of centuries, there is no indication that early Christian communities celebrated the birth of Jesus at all, let alone on December 25. Some Christian sects today celebrate the birth of Jesus on January 6.<br />
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<b>Roman Celebrations</b><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7eBl3SL6gSZMJ_DQ1rTtfVZPIeV0779kVsQthYUPq7vKQMuXRSuig05oQf7Nhzr3J6JCelM3fdUcJPBbUEdgNS7xdB5w4Om4aWByxPW17kLYqefzN1M_zUUKs5LF5zsV-PoImpcC0c6fE/s1600/Nativityscene.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7eBl3SL6gSZMJ_DQ1rTtfVZPIeV0779kVsQthYUPq7vKQMuXRSuig05oQf7Nhzr3J6JCelM3fdUcJPBbUEdgNS7xdB5w4Om4aWByxPW17kLYqefzN1M_zUUKs5LF5zsV-PoImpcC0c6fE/s320/Nativityscene.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
One of many artists' renderings of the birth of Jesus.</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
In fact, we know almost nothing about how it actually appeared.</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Some theorize that early Christian leaders chose the date to correspond with the Roman celebration of Saturnalia, which was a week long celebration lasting from December 17 through December 25 as measured by the modern calendar. This was mid-winter celebration that was highly popular throughout the empire by the time of the Christian era. <br />
<br />
Another theory is that it was meant to replace the festival of <i>dies</i> <i>natalis solis invicti</i>, ‘birthday of the unconquered sun’. This was a celebration of the winter solstice, when the days began to get longer again. It was also celebrated on December 25 (they were a few days off from what we know today as the actual solstice). This was also a Roman civil holiday for the religion of Mithras. Mithra was often portrayed as a baby in these celebrations marking the beginning of a new year (much like baby new year today). Mithra was also popular in Egypt and Syria at this time. These regions were also major centers of Christianity. Emperor Aurelian (214-275), was a proponent of the cult, making its holidays widely followed. This was only a few decades before Emperor Constantine (272-337) made Christianity the State religion.<br />
<br />
The notion, however, that early Christian leaders would simply perpetrate a fraud by declaring the date of Jesus' birth to blot out the holiday of another religion seems a bit odd.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Early Christmas References</b></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
The earliest reference to Christmas comes from the era of Constantine, A Roman calendar from the year 354 AD references both the birth of Christ for the Christians and the Mithras celebration of the "unconquered sun" on that day. So the two were celebrated concurrently for at least some time.<br />
<br />
There is no evidence that the Christian communities celebrated Jesus' birth for at least the first two centuries of Christian worship. One early Church leader, Origen of Alexandria (165–264) writes mockingly about Roman practices celebrating birth anniversaries. He dismisses them as "pagan" practices to be avoided. This indicates that Christians did not celebrate any birth anniversaries of their own.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwWPqI9XE2NW3FPI3O5qaku7tH7gq4Ox8PYPb0n_EEAcN3OJ-dkQrlB4AKzKQhjZeu36xKwv231NZpgJen1xLtgXe5JEaBPZGu94RI1f-0151ErlPnLpOrOWkel7MFnyuKRvOMqTaorG79/s1600/clement-of-alexandria-granger.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwWPqI9XE2NW3FPI3O5qaku7tH7gq4Ox8PYPb0n_EEAcN3OJ-dkQrlB4AKzKQhjZeu36xKwv231NZpgJen1xLtgXe5JEaBPZGu94RI1f-0151ErlPnLpOrOWkel7MFnyuKRvOMqTaorG79/s200/clement-of-alexandria-granger.jpg" width="156" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Clement of Alexandria</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The earliest reference we have to the birth of Jesus comes from Clement of Alexandria (150-215) who mentions a number of possible dates, none of which were in December:<br />
<br />
<i>“There are those who have determined not only the year of our Lord’s birth, but also the day; and they say that it took place in the 28th year of Augustus, and in the 25th day of [the Egyptian month] Pachon [May 20 in the modern calendar] … And treating of His Passion, with very great accuracy, some say that it took place in the 16th year of Tiberius, on the 25th of Phamenoth [March 21]; and others on the 25th of Pharmuthi [April 21] and others say that on the 19th of Pharmuthi [April 15] the Savior suffered. Further, others say that He was born on the 24th or 25th of Pharmuthi [April 20 or 21].”</i><br />
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<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4CUBn7BTHfekKVuYEvaqeV_bZ4CQM8ilZpjhQwCEE-YcHeu4EbdUFWXK2Bo_qF_6zSDUr94PzBJ-mgj_r8KOT5ZDFo88jMT4VyXQkWbRn-WR41aBRkfyohfK6hGj7S5G0SHxOUjj2zypG/s1600/Augustine-Hippo.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="196" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4CUBn7BTHfekKVuYEvaqeV_bZ4CQM8ilZpjhQwCEE-YcHeu4EbdUFWXK2Bo_qF_6zSDUr94PzBJ-mgj_r8KOT5ZDFo88jMT4VyXQkWbRn-WR41aBRkfyohfK6hGj7S5G0SHxOUjj2zypG/s200/Augustine-Hippo.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Augustine of Hippo</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
All of these dates fall in March or April, meaning no one contended Jesus was born in December or January. Another clue comes from Augustine of Hippo. Augustine notes around 400 AD that a mentions a local dissident Christian group known as the Donatists celebrated Christmas on December 25 but refused to celebrate the Epiphany on January 6 because it was an innovation. Apparently the Donatists would not accept a date without a historical basis. Since the Donatists were founded just after 300 AD, it would seem that they believed Jesus' December 25 birth was established before that time.<br />
<br />
It that is case, the December 25 date was probably established at some time around 200-300 AD. During this period, Christianity was generally an illegal cult within the Roman Empire. Church leaders were not in a position to blot out pagan holidays by reclassifying them during this period. However, they may have wanted a celebration of their own at a time when everyone else was celebrating.<br />
<br />
One theory that I find intriguing is based on the belief by early Church leaders that Jesus came into this word and left it on the same date. The Gospels indicate the Jesus died during the Jewish celebration of Passover, which some in the early Church calculated to be March 25. So, if Jesus was also conceived on March 25, he would have been born nine months later on December 25. When information was lacking, formulas like this were often employed to come up with a date.<br />
<br />
No one knows for certain how December 25 came to be celebrated as the birthday of Jesus. It is, however, so deeply embedded now in western tradition that it would be impossible to change, even if conclusive proof of a different date was revealed.<br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2017-01-07T07_30_22-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<b>Further Reading:</b><br />
<a href="https://draft.blogger.com/goog_703701167"><br /></a>
<a href="http://www.catholic.com/blog/jon-sorensen/why-december-25">http://www.catholic.com/blog/jon-sorensen/why-december-25</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-topics/new-testament/how-december-25-became-christmas">http://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-topics/new-testament/how-december-25-became-christmas</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.historytoday.com/matt-salusbury/did-romans-invent-christmas">http://www.historytoday.com/matt-salusbury/did-romans-invent-christmas</a><br />
<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-14260432498355915602015-12-05T07:18:00.000-05:002016-12-31T17:29:05.290-05:00Rehearsals for Pearl HarborListen to a free <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-12-31T14_21_27-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
Sometimes, the US can be its own worst enemy. Such is the case leading up to the beginning of World War II. American military planners essentially showed the enemy how best to attack the US military forces at Pearl Harbor, and then took no steps to fix the insufficient defenses.<br />
<br />
In the years leading up to WWII, Pearl Harbor in the US territory of Hawaii served as one of the main Pacific naval bases for the US. So many navy ships in one port in a relatively isolated group of islands made an attractive and easy target to any enemy seeking to cripple the US Pacific fleet. Sure, it's easy for me to say that in hindsight. But what about those who warned about it well ahead of time?<br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfg-ZPueIwmuCf-kP3PLBrTkVhDSh5baUsXO2HAYPTby1k6gr7SDId1EuMud4fOJeyK6j0cq1raciJEfZF8HrlhMmbYcQLchYG2FcAKwYgupRpZtONzNFXNEkjs3SgvKIvRkgUF-bPVVCx/s1600/Pearl_Harbor_Attack.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="268" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfg-ZPueIwmuCf-kP3PLBrTkVhDSh5baUsXO2HAYPTby1k6gr7SDId1EuMud4fOJeyK6j0cq1raciJEfZF8HrlhMmbYcQLchYG2FcAKwYgupRpZtONzNFXNEkjs3SgvKIvRkgUF-bPVVCx/s400/Pearl_Harbor_Attack.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Attack on Pearl Harbor, Dec. 7, 1941. Could it have been avoided?</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<b>Gen. Mitchell Warns the Military, Gets Tossed Out </b><br />
<br />
Gen. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Mitchell">William "Billy" Mitchell</a> of the US Army was one of the first to draw concern to this danger. After a 1924 tour of military forces in Asia, Gen. Mitchell issued a lengthy report the following year warning of the growing Japanese air power. He went into great detail about how Pearl Harbor could be easily attacked by Japanese air forces. He said that the likely scenario would be a crippling attack on Pearl Harbor to take out the Navy, followed by an attack on military bases in the Philippines. By eliminating the Navy, the Japanese could invade the Philippines with at least months before the US could rebuild a navy to respond. His report even went so far as to predict the timing of the attacks down to the minute:<br />
<br />
<i>"Bombardment, attack to be made on Ford Island (Hawaii) at 7:30 A.M..... Attack to be made on Clark Field [Philippines] at 10:40 A.M. "</i><br />
<br />
Of course, Mitchell got this wrong: The Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 at 7:55 A.M. and later at Clark Field, Philippines at 12:35 P.M. So Mitchell's estimate, 15 years in advance, was off by 25 minutes for Pearl Harbor and less than two hours for Clark Field in the Philippines!<br />
<br />
The Mitchell Report, known as <i><a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780817383046">Winged Defense</a></i>, also criticized the lack of communication between the Army and Navy in Hawaii. He noted that communication between the two branches would be critical during any attack, but that there were no systems in place to allow for this. <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Gen. Billy Mitchell</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Upon the issuance of this key report in 1925 by the man who had been in command of all US air combat in WWI, the military of course took immediate steps to develop better defenses for this military base that was the key to control of the Pacific.... Just kidding - all the more senior military officials either ignored or criticized the report.<br />
<br />
One General commented that Mitchell's assumptions of possible enemy actions were unsound and preposterous. Another of his superiors claimed never to have seen the report until after it was published as a book a year later. The military establishment had, for many years ignored or refuted Mitchell's compelling arguments that air power would dominate future military actions. The 1925 report just made him too annoying. Shortly after his report's publication, Gen. Mitchell was demoted to Colonel and transferred to a minor remote air base in San Antonio Texas, where he could be more easily ignored.<br />
<br />
This is not to say everyone ignored him. One government official commented:<br />
<br />
<i>"Should there be such a war, America would have to fight it a long way from home...It would be gravely embarrassing to the American people if the ideas of your General Mitchell were more appreciated in Japan than in the United States."</i> and <i>"Our people will cheer your great Mitchell and, you may be sure, will study his experiments."</i><br />
<br />
This official was a Mr. G. Katsuda from the Japanese Parliament, shortly after observing one of Mitchell's demonstrations of the superiority of air power against land and naval forces. Japanese officials were invited observers. These officials apparently took much more interest than US officials.<br />
<br />
Unfortunately, one thing Mitchell was not good at was knowing when to shut up. Shortly after banishing Col. Mitchell to Texas, military leaders sent a group of three sea planes on a public relations flight from California to Hawaii. One failed to take off. One had to land at sea and be rescued shortly after takeoff. The third ran out of fuel and also had to have its crew rescued after a sea landing. Around the same time, leaders sent a military airship, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Shenandoah_(ZR-1)">Shenandoah</a> on a public relations tour through the mid-west. It crashed during a storm, killing all aboard.<br />
<br />
Mitchell knew some of the men killed and angrily made the following statements to a newspaper: <i>“These incidents are the direct result of the incompetency, criminal negligence and almost treasonable administration of the national defense by the Navy and War Departments,” </i>Mitchell continued:<i> “The bodies of my former companions in the air moulder under the soil in America, and Asia, Europe and Africa, many, yes a great many, sent there directly by official stupidity.”</i><br />
<br />
For these comments, the military decided to court martial Mitchell for <i>“conduct of a nature to bring discredit upon the military service.” </i> The Court found him guilty and suspended him from military service. That was enough for Mitchell, who resigned from the Army and retired to farm in Virginia. He died there in 1936.<br />
<br />
<b>War Games in 1932 and 1938 Make Clear the Vulnerabilities</b><br />
<br />
Mitchell, of course, was not the only officer to see the danger of leaving Pearl Harbor exposed to aerial attack. In 1932, Admiral <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_E._Yarnell">Harry Yarnell</a> proved Mitchell's theory correct during war games against Pearl Harbor, The Navy conducted annual war games in which a naval fleet from California would move on Pearl Harbor. The Pearl fleet would then move to intercept and the mock battle would take place in open sea. In 1932, Yarnell decided to maintain radio silence as his fleet advanced. He attacked without battleships, using just two aircraft carriers and three destroyers. He avoided trade routes where his ships might be seen and reported, and decided to hit with an air attack on Sunday, when he knew most sailors would be off duty.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgl0iqXu1-VCR8S_ALPSJQe1UBp9gveO25KLTao7ht6oWyHef_hn6eelgFC2RdaalJpvjrk_9gGOAyZAlzqDd9HNu-mpvaYwu7zDUQhng2S0X152Fs6qC6Po5rYnWTYFr-Y7i8r251WBYWh/s1600/Harry_Yarnell.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgl0iqXu1-VCR8S_ALPSJQe1UBp9gveO25KLTao7ht6oWyHef_hn6eelgFC2RdaalJpvjrk_9gGOAyZAlzqDd9HNu-mpvaYwu7zDUQhng2S0X152Fs6qC6Po5rYnWTYFr-Y7i8r251WBYWh/s320/Harry_Yarnell.jpg" width="241" /></a></div>
The "attack" consisted of simple flares and bags of flour. They were enough to convince the war game referees that Yarnell's attack would have sunk every ship in Pearl Harbor, as well as every land-based plane on Oahu.<br />
<br />
Yarnell’s success proved the effectiveness of an aerial attack from a carrier. As a result, officials altered area defenses to protect against a real surprise attack from the air.... Again, just kidding - the Navy ignored the results of the war games, arguing that in a real life scenario, their battleships would have found the aircraft carriers before they got within range and destroyed them. <br />
<br />
Some military officials, however, recognized the significance of these war games. In 1936, the Japanese Imperial Naval Academy made the 1932 war games against Pearl Harbor part of the curriculum for students. The final exam that year asked the question <i>"How would you carry out a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor?"</i><br />
<br />
In 1938 Admiral Ernest King used an aircraft carrier to launch an aerial attack to make the point that Pearl Harbor was still vulnerable to this type of attack. With this second war game confirmation of its vulnerability to air attack, naval officials realized the first war game was not just a fluke and that they needed to reevaluate air defenses at Pearl Harbor. Sorry, again just kidding. The navy again argued that, despite two successful war game attacks, such a sneak attack was impossible in a real life scenario and that the results of these sneak attack war games meant nothing.<br />
<br />
<b>1940-41: US Military Lines Up Ships and Planes as Easy Targets</b><br />
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</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSzdHwalARA3wvbrpnKHeO5IzmGPfDtwC74bl6CBytCxCmb95dPOoo8kUiSEreDx6F32vlhSyPBPDjhN_813i7cs7o3WUSIBx715yhD_aPmK0h6a4SGA3Xx1hUeEiU1oNQfRFJE7CcFyJe/s1600/James_Richardson.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSzdHwalARA3wvbrpnKHeO5IzmGPfDtwC74bl6CBytCxCmb95dPOoo8kUiSEreDx6F32vlhSyPBPDjhN_813i7cs7o3WUSIBx715yhD_aPmK0h6a4SGA3Xx1hUeEiU1oNQfRFJE7CcFyJe/s200/James_Richardson.jpg" width="146" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Adm. James Richardson</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
In 1940, it was determined that the navy should move its main fleet from San Diego California to Pearl Harbor. The Commander in Chief of the US Fleet, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_O._Richardson">James Richardson</a> vehemently objected to this. According to a newspaper article written shortly after the war:<br />
<br />
"<i>It was Richardson's belief – and indeed generally supported by the Navy – that the Fleet should never be berthed inside Pearl Harbor where it would be a mark for attack. This was particularly true in such troubled times when the airways of the East were hot with rumors of approaching conflict. What is more, Richardson held the belief that Pearl Harbor was the logical first point of attack for the Japanese High Command, wedded as it was to the theory of undeclared and surprise warfare. For ten years the U.S. Navy held "attacks" on the Army defenses at Pearl Harbor, and were always successful. Defending the base was rather hopeless, in his mind."</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrjemP7zE9SZjdSJiY8dm9inZ_5UNjuY-WJbKtrCzw01o_lHvtzZRY5m9qKzq8oTau4Doxw6vQMZEMdN8053CJh_IuVx4U-eT6OaBvyYWRGCHYVzR0moXGyRJ5CbwjSaQ8Z7wkqIRWfHNQ/s1600/Husband_Kimmel.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrjemP7zE9SZjdSJiY8dm9inZ_5UNjuY-WJbKtrCzw01o_lHvtzZRY5m9qKzq8oTau4Doxw6vQMZEMdN8053CJh_IuVx4U-eT6OaBvyYWRGCHYVzR0moXGyRJ5CbwjSaQ8Z7wkqIRWfHNQ/s200/Husband_Kimmel.jpg" width="166" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Adm. Husband Kimmel</span></td></tr>
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Adm. Richardson met with President Roosevelt in October 1940 to press his objections to this move. Roosevelt listened to the military concerns and soon responded -- by removing Richardson from command and turning over command to the more compliant Admiral <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husband_E._Kimmel">Husband E. Kimmel</a> in February 1941. Less than ten months later, Adm. Kimmel would be standing at the window of his office in Hawaii watching Japanese planes destroy his fleet in Pearl Harbor.<br />
<div>
<br />
On Dec. 7, 1941, the military in Hawaii was completely unprepared for an attack. Gen. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Short">Walter Short</a>, the Army commander in Hawaii, was more worried about sabotage than attack. Commanders feared Japanese sympathizers on Oahu might attack aircraft, vehicles, and buildings. To guard against any such sabotage, they parked aircraft wingtip to wingtip on the flight lines, out in the open at Hickam, Wheeler, Bellows, and other airfields, making them especially easy targets for Japanese planes. Ammunition was stored far from aircraft, in a central location, meaning it would take much more time to arm aircraft before they could take off if needed. <br />
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<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHuZQwreSBIQCCz6ZkQV6L8LZpdsjdZOA-i9wmYoCC0qytVE9fFwe_OASRC9zNzUxejPVP0wO7MErkm_zQCLwXNMWG19M-ByWFN9zQ8aGoTUOEDpnEtnhXhDHt72mFxlNnfdI-5SM5qYU9/s1600/Walter_Short.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHuZQwreSBIQCCz6ZkQV6L8LZpdsjdZOA-i9wmYoCC0qytVE9fFwe_OASRC9zNzUxejPVP0wO7MErkm_zQCLwXNMWG19M-ByWFN9zQ8aGoTUOEDpnEtnhXhDHt72mFxlNnfdI-5SM5qYU9/s200/Walter_Short.jpg" width="142" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Gen Walter Short</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The military did have radar, but did not bother to keep it running during the day. It was scheduled to be turned off at 7:00 a.m. on Sunday December 7. The radar operators on duty that morning, however, continued to keep it running as the truck that was scheduled to take them to breakfast was running late. They detected approaching aircraft at 7:02 a.m. They reported the detection, but most of the command staff had already left for breakfast. The Lieutenant who received the report assumed it was an incoming US bomber group scheduled to arrive that day. The radar operators were told not to worry about it. Still, they followed the incoming planes until 7:40, then lost contact, because the planes descended below radar. Since there were no other reports of suspicious activity, they thought nothing more of it and headed to breakfast. It was only after arrival at the breakfast hall that the operators received word that the attack had begun. They quickly returned to their posts, but by then the attack was well underway.<br />
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<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHvlw4e3W-jEwuWW5k5LDyEUUb11wFAdVuUya3vUS7FENQDgjM-UTGAXmg2mymFUcW6irizxCRU5BuC1Ka2-ibdljT-7Ujd0C5DNE9mVEDzwLhdGELQpU88UzTlpZk9ghbQe40nOX8KfeY/s1600/Planes_Destroyed.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="237" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHvlw4e3W-jEwuWW5k5LDyEUUb11wFAdVuUya3vUS7FENQDgjM-UTGAXmg2mymFUcW6irizxCRU5BuC1Ka2-ibdljT-7Ujd0C5DNE9mVEDzwLhdGELQpU88UzTlpZk9ghbQe40nOX8KfeY/s320/Planes_Destroyed.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Planes lined up side by side by side on the runways</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
made easy targets.</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Perhaps if the Army Lieutenant who received the radar report also knew that at 6:54 a.m. the destroyer <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Ward_(DD-139)">USS Ward</a></i> sank a Japanese midget submarine in the mouth of the harbor, he might have not been quite so quick to dismiss the radar report. But this sinking by the Navy was not reported to Adm. Kimmel's staff for another half hour. No one thought to report it to the Army at all The poor Army/Navy communications that Gen. Mitchel had warned about 15 years earlier had not gotten any better. <br />
<br />
The result of this lack of preparation and vigilance was a near total loss for the US. The Army and Navy combined suffered 2,403 killed and 1,178 wounded. By comparison, the Japanese attackers suffered 64 killed and one captured. The US also had all eight of their battleships and 11 other ships damaged or destroyed. Japan suffered four mini-submarines sunk and a fifth captured after it ran aground. No Americans even fired on the Japanese surface fleet. The Army Air corps had 347 out of a total 390 planes damaged or destroyed, mostly while sitting on the ground, out in the open, without any fuel or ammunition to launch. Japan lost a mere 29 planes out of over 400 used in the attack.<br />
<br />
<b>Aftermath:</b><br />
<br />
Finally, only after the devastation was complete, did the military put in place adequate air defenses to protect the critical military bases there from future attack during the War -- So sorry, I couldn't resist. I am, of course, just kidding. Rather than focus on the enemy, the local military actions focused on continuing misplaced fears of threats from the local civilian population. One of the first steps the military took was to try to seize and censor any photos or film that civilians had taken of the Japanese attack. The military also began reading and censoring all private letters and English speaking newspapers (foreign language newspapers were banned outright). It monitored all telephone calls to the mainland mandated English only for all phone conversations.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0kmxlxQkMFLDroOyENpYv8csynnVUtEc2oQB12FCEi2_s8g7uA3jlMqSLKBdAySnmp-vBXzOBmwCARRNqJpzim3s6pOVMForXCJc4Y0ybspxqyT8tSU55K8fJFEdMilQ7DM2k2Pid27LB/s1600/Defenses+after+Pearl+Attack.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0kmxlxQkMFLDroOyENpYv8csynnVUtEc2oQB12FCEi2_s8g7uA3jlMqSLKBdAySnmp-vBXzOBmwCARRNqJpzim3s6pOVMForXCJc4Y0ybspxqyT8tSU55K8fJFEdMilQ7DM2k2Pid27LB/s320/Defenses+after+Pearl+Attack.jpg" width="282" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Installation of barbed wire around</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Iolani Palace after the attack</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Despite just being attacked by a foreign army, the military continued to believe the local population still constituted the greatest continuing threat. The army declared martial law, issued orders closing all saloons and prohibiting the sale of liquor. Apparently drunken saboteurs are the most dangerous. It also suspended civil courts and instituted military provost courts in their place. It closed all schools for an indefinite period; suspended food sales (so the military could inventory and ration food supplies) and greatly restricted gasoline sales. The military even banned the use of all US currency, issuing script that was only valid to be spent in Hawaii. It also froze all wages, pay raises apparently being another threat to national security. It also barred Japanese nationals from earning more than $200 per month. All private ownership of firearms was also prohibited.<br />
<br />
With the declaration of martial law and suspension of constitutional rights, the military proceeded immediately to round up dozens of local civilians of Japanese, German, or Italian descent. Eventually this number would rise to several thousand. Many of these were American citizens, and no evidence ever came to light that they or anyone else on Hawaii was an enemy agent or saboteur. In fact, the only related act of civilian violence was a group of Hawaiians who killed a Japanese pilot who crash landed on a remote island.<br />
<br />
Most of these military restrictions remained in place for than six months. Some aspects of martial law, including the suspension of habeas corpus (the right not to be imprisoned indefinitely without trial) remained in place nearly until the end of the war. <br />
<br />
Even after the attack, officials never put in place any better air defenses or even sufficient monitoring to prevent another attack. Japanese submarines remained around the island for weeks without being detected. The Japanese flew at least two flights over Pearl Harbor to survey the damage. One flew over around dawn on December 18. Another flew over at night on Jan. 6-7. Failure to implement any new enemy detection procedures meant that neither plane was detected.<br />
<br />
Listen to a free <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-12-31T14_21_27-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
<b>For Further Reading:</b><br />
<br />
Ok, it's not really "reading," but there was a movie made in 1955 called <a href="http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0047956/">The Court Martial of Billy Mitchell</a> starring Gary Cooper. If you are interested in this stuff, get it and watch it. Personally, I think the bias of the movie is too pro-government, but that is what you got in the 1950's.<br />
<br />
You can also watch a <a href="https://youtu.be/226hbDbrKH8">silent movie</a> taken of the actual Billy Mitchell at a send off party of all of his friends, when he got tossed out of DC and sent to Texas in 1925<br />
<br />
You can read more about Mitchell here:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/the-billy-mitchell-court-martial-136828592/?no-ist">http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/the-billy-mitchell-court-martial-136828592/?no-ist</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://liberty-virtue-independence.blogspot.com/2008/12/major-general-billy-mitchells-1925.html">http://liberty-virtue-independence.blogspot.com/2008/12/major-general-billy-mitchells-1925.html</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://unwritten-record.blogs.archives.gov/2014/08/27/billy-mitchells-boozy-barbecue-send-off-1925/">http://unwritten-record.blogs.archives.gov/2014/08/27/billy-mitchells-boozy-barbecue-send-off-1925/</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.homeofheroes.com/wings/part1/6_survival.html">http://www.homeofheroes.com/wings/part1/6_survival.html</a><br />
<br />
You can also read Mitchell's 1925 Report here:<br />
<br />
<a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780817383046">https://muse.jhu.edu/books/9780817383046</a><br />
<br />
Sites dealing with the war games of 1932 and 1938:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.ussflierproject.com/tags/1932-attack-on-pearl-harbor/">http://www.ussflierproject.com/tags/1932-attack-on-pearl-harbor/</a><br />
<br />
<a href="https://www.quora.com/Could-the-attack-on-Pearl-Harbor-have-been-prevented">https://www.quora.com/Could-the-attack-on-Pearl-Harbor-have-been-prevented</a><br />
<br />
Attack and Aftermath:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/pearl-harbor-the-army-air-forces-fight-back/">http://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/pearl-harbor-the-army-air-forces-fight-back/</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/guard-us/ch8.htm">http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/guard-us/ch8.htm</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Martial_law_in_Hawaii/">http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Martial_law_in_Hawaii/</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.infowars.com/hawaii-under-martial-law-was-military-dictatorship-1941-1944/">http://www.infowars.com/hawaii-under-martial-law-was-military-dictatorship-1941-1944/</a><br />
<br />
<br /></div>
Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-21929198131269188712015-11-21T06:36:00.000-05:002019-02-10T10:57:34.674-05:00The Pilgrims were not PuritansListen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-12-24T05_41_53-08_00" target="_blank">Podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
We've all heard one story or another about the Pilgrims coming from England landing on Plymouth Rock. They founded what became the Colony of Massachusetts, inspired by a desire to practice their religion freely, eventually pushing out the Indians and eventually developing New England into a Colony with great religious zeal. Unfortunately, just about all of that is wrong.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyZNuAsDK5QXWkid6fPZUXG7dnKJNpntKL9XC5AleYHEZ-lihXbVN9MQnh4pzkMGOnmEtFK3BF5cov32gv11Jxe64_KOFaBR7csvtaVCpHoob2BPTbXiglE0wyVN9boSv83keT0Asl3evi/s1600/pilgrims_thankgiving.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="190" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyZNuAsDK5QXWkid6fPZUXG7dnKJNpntKL9XC5AleYHEZ-lihXbVN9MQnh4pzkMGOnmEtFK3BF5cov32gv11Jxe64_KOFaBR7csvtaVCpHoob2BPTbXiglE0wyVN9boSv83keT0Asl3evi/s400/pilgrims_thankgiving.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Most of the paintings of the first Thanksgiving, like this one, were </div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
painted <span style="font-size: 12.8px;">centuries later and contain major historical inaccuracies.</span></div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Much of our confusion comes from people not understanding the difference between Pilgrims and Puritans. Sadly, the vision of the Pilgrims died out rather quickly and succumbed to Puritan control of what became New England.<br />
<br />
The Pilgrims were actually a rather small and unique group of people In the early 1600s, less than a Century after <a href="http://www.royal.gov.uk/historyofthemonarchy/kingsandqueensofengland/thetudors/henryviii.aspx">King Henry VIII</a> created the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Church_of_England">Church of England</a>, religion in that country remained very unsettled. There were many who still wanted to be Catholic. Others were quite happy with the Church of England, which was in many ways similar to the <a href="https://draft.blogger.com/"><span id="goog_1912527501"></span>Catholic Church<span id="goog_1912527502"></span></a> other than having replaced the Pope with the King as the head of the Church. Still others, Puritans, wanted to change the Church of England to make it more like the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheranism">Lutheran</a> and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinism">Calvinist</a> Churches in northern Europe. Distinct from the Puritans were the Separatists This group wanted to practice a form of Christianity that sought to be much like the early Church of the first or second centuries, although it did have a strong Calvinist influence. It did not want to change the Church of England. It wanted to practice its own distinct and separate form of Christianity.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
John Robinson</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
The Pilgrims' Spiritual leader</div>
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<br />
The Pilgrims, as we call them today were clearly in the separatist camp. Their leader, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Robinson_(pastor)">John Robinson</a> summed up the idea: <i>"The main ends for which the Lord gathereth and preserveth his church upon earth are that he might have a peculiar people, separated unto himself, from all other peoples, to call upon his name in faith and to glorify him, their heavenly Father in their holy conversation, whom he also might glorify in the end of their faith, the salvation of their souls." </i>In other words, Christians tended to be a small sub-group called by God out from the masses. While the group welcomed others who wanted to be a part of this select group, they did not feel the need to force the rest of the world to worship as they did. This was a very distinct difference between the separatist Pilgrims and the Puritans in England, as well as those Puritans who later settled the Massachusetts Bay Colony in America.<br />
<br />
<b>Leaving England</b><br />
<br />
There was no such thing as freedom of religion in England at that time. Everyone was required to be a member of the Church of England. Many in the group had been imprisoned or had their property confiscated. Some had been executed. As a result, the group, which was centered around the small village of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrooby"> Scrooby</a> decided to leave England. Even leaving the country was illegal. The group made several failed attempts to leave, resulting in many more being imprisoned. On the first successful voyage, only portion of the Pilgrims were able to board a ship, while others, mostly the women and children, were captured by authorities while still on shore, Those who sailed away endured an arduous 14 day voyage -- to Holland (which took 14 days because of terrible weather).<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Leiden as it appeared in the early 1600's</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Holland was known for its religious tolerance. The group first left in late 1607. They first located in Amsterdam but eventually settled in <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden">Leiden</a> in 1609. There, they began to work and practice their faith as they wished. Eventually many of those still imprisoned in England were released and permitted to join the group in Leiden. The group of about 120 was apparently welcomed by the city and began working mostly in the local weaving trade, or similar urban trades. They were active in the community and involved with the relatively new University of Leiden.<br />
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<div style="text-align: left;">
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William Bradford</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Governor of Plymouth</div>
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After about a decade, the group decided to leave Holland. There were several factors that led to this decision. First, while they were still free to practice their religion, the Dutch government began passing several laws restricting the actions of separatist sects such as theirs. The group saw that things were headed in the wrong direction. As <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_(Plymouth_Colony_governor)">William Bradford</a> put it: <i>"So they left that goodly and pleasant city which had been their resting place near twelve years; but they knew they were pilgrims, and looked not much on those things, but lift up their eyes to the heavens, their dearest country, and quieted their spirits." </i>Notice that Bradford did refer to them as Pilgrims. It was not a term used to define their community, but they looked on the voyage to the new world as a sort of pilgrimage with a religious purpose. More often, when referring to members of the community, they would call themselves "saints."<br />
<br />
The primary expressed reasons for leaving were not primarily over religious freedom. One big factor was that they felt they were losing much of their English culture. Their children were learning to speak Dutch and would likely integrate into the larger Dutch culture around them if they remained. Another factor was the hard work of a tradesman in a city was very different from the small town agricultural setting that they left in England. As Bradford put it <i>"Though their minds were free and willing, yet many were so oppressed with their heavy labors that their bodies bowed under </i><i>the weight and became decrepit in their early youth; the vigor of nature being consumed in the very bud, as it were." </i>Working sweatshop hours in a factory to make a living was not the dream most of them had for themselves. Farming was much more attractive to this group raised in an agricultural community.<br />
<br />
<b>Planning the Voyage</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Once they decided to leave, there was great debate on where to go. A large contingent wanted to move the group to Guyana in South America. At the time, the area was disputed by the Spanish and Dutch. It is likely that the Dutch were encouraging the group to go there to help solidify their claim to the area.<br />
<br />
In the end, though, the group decided to go to the English colony of Virginia. At the time, Virginia claimed land all the way up to what is today New York. There were already a few Dutch settlements around the Hudson River area and the group had received promising reports that the region was ripe for settlement. Because the area was claimed by England, the group sought English permission to settle there. They also could not afford the cost of the voyage and needed financial backing. <br />
<br />
In order to accomplish these goals, they convinced investors in England to support them. A group headed by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Weston_(merchant_adventurer)">Thomas Weston</a>, known as the Merchant Adventurers agreed to underwrite most of the costs. Essentially the Pilgrims sold themselves into indentured servitude. They agreed to work for the company for seven years, sending back fur, lumber, and other valuable goods to repay English investors. All profits from all work belonged to the investors. No land would be assigned to any colonist during these first years, as they would live communally on company land.<br />
<br />
<b>Travel to the New World</b><br />
<br />
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</div>
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Mayflower: artist's rendering</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
No contemporary drawings of</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
the ship exist.</div>
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The trip across the Atlantic was a difficult one. The Pilgrims hoped to have two ships, the larger <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayflower">Mayflower</a></i> was chartered for the trip. It was designed as a cargo ship, so passangers had to make due with rather uncomfortable conditions. The group also purchased a smaller ship, the <i><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speedwell_(ship)">Speedwell</a></i> so that they would have a vessel to keep with them at the colony. Unfortunately the <i>Speedwell</i> proved not to be seaworthy. After several attempts, they had to leave it behind. These failed attempts also delayed final departure until autumn The trip itself took just over two months, departing from Plymouth England on September 6, 1620 and first sighting land on November 11. Keep in mind that this was the contemporary dates. During the next century, the calendar would be adjusted by 10 days. So by the modern calendar, they arrived on Nov. 21, well into the period when the harvest was over and the cold of winter was arriving.<br />
<br />
There were 102 passengers on that first trip. There was also the ship's crew, of which there is no record or specific count, but it is estimated to be between 25 and 50 men (most estimate around 30) comprising the ship's officers and crew. Only one passenger died on the Atlantic crossing, but one was also born en route, meaning the ship arrived with the same number total. Another four passengers died on the ship during December as they were searching for a place to settle for winter camp.<br />
<br />
It is interesting to note that of the passengers on the <i>Mayflower</i>, a little less than 2/3 were members of the congregation and their families or servants. The remaining number were families sent by the Merchant Adventurers who financed the trip. These people were presumably all members of the Church of England and seem to be motivated primarily by the economic opportunities of the project rather than any religious motivations.<br />
<br />
Although the initial plan was to settle near what is today New York City, the <i>Mayflower</i> first sighted land near what is today <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provincetown_Harbor">Provincetown Harbor</a>. They first dropped anchor near the tip of Cape Cod, many miles from Plymouth Rock. According to contemporary accounts, they drafted the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayflower_Compact">Mayflower Compact</a> and on that same day, sent a party to shore to search for fire wood, and whatever else they could find. There was no contemporary record of exactly where they first landed, probably because the site would not have had a specific name yet. But from the description, it was clearly somewhere near the tip of Cape Cod There was no reference to any landing on Plymouth Rock, first or otherwise, until more than 100 years later. That seems to be part of the fable created many generations after the fact. The Compact says very little other than that they agree to remain under the authority of the King, advance the Christian faith, and create "equal and just' laws to run the community that they would create.<br />
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Many people think that the Pilgrims named the Plymouth colony after the town in England from which they departed. This is not the case. The area had already been explored in 1614 by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Smith_(explorer)">John Smith</a> (from the Jamestown colony) and named before the Pilgrims arrived. The name Plymouth was already written on the maps used by the <i>Mayflower. </i> The Pilgrims simply accepted that name without any thought to changing it.<br />
<br />
The <i>Mayflower</i> attempted to travel south along the coast to reach the original destination near modern New York, but weather prevented them from making such a trip safely. With winter almost upon them, and with food and disease beginning to cause deaths aboard ship, the group spent several more weeks scouting the area for a good place to set up winter camp. They finally decided to settle at Plymouth<br />
<br />
William Bradford, who later became the colony's governor, noted <i>"it was the best they could find, and the season and present necessity made them glad to accept of it." </i>During the time it took to settle on a spot, winter had made life difficult. Hunger and disease were beginning to take their toll. Four more passengers died in the space of one week in mid December as the ship continued to look for a winter camp location. The location was rushed and not focused on the long term benefits of the location.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>The Plymouth Colony</b></div>
<br />
The entire group lived communally in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth_Colony">Plymouth colony</a>. The Pilgrims did not seem to pressure any of the "strangers" as they were sometimes called, to join the congregation or participate in their religion. While there were no specific guarantees of religious freedom in the colony's laws, the Pilgrims seemed content to allow members of other religious traditions live and work among them, at least in these early years. Decades later, in 1650, the colony passed mandatory Church attendance laws, after the establishment of Puritan Massachusetts and such laws had been passed there. It is not clear whether the non-members of the Congregation all attended Church, although it appears that most did so voluntarily. It is certain that all colonists were not required to become a member of the congregation in those early decades. The Pilgrims also did not attempt to convert local Indian tribes to Christianity in these early years.<br />
<br />
The Colony seemed woefully unprepared to survive the winter. They did not have enough food and supplies. The planting season was well over by the end of December when they first settled. Perhaps because they initially planned to land near the Hudson River where there were already some small encampments, they hoped to take some assistance from the communities there. But even so, it does not seem a good plan to dump over 100 hungry colonists on a small encampment of a few dozen people who are not expecting such a large influx of hungry visitors for the winter.<br />
<br />
In any event, there were absolutely no colonists in the area they settled. Some were happy to be outside of the Virginia Colony. It meant their charter was not valid, but it also meant they would not be governed by the laws of Virginia. There was some hope to trade with the local natives. But making contact and establishing trust would prove difficult. First contact, resulted in an armed battle, although no one was killed. Other attempts to establish a parlay for discussion usually ended up with the Indians running away.<br />
<br />
In some ways, the Pilgrims were very fortunate in where they settled. There had been a large tribe living in the area which had been wiped out almost completely by disease spread by European explorers who had been in the area in prior years. The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patuxet_tribe">Patuxet</a> tribe had been wiped out. If there were any survivors, they had fled the area and been absorbed by other tribes. As a result, the Pilgrims found land that was already cleared and ready for planting. They also found a number of buried chambers of corn, probably seed corn stored for spring planting. Some of this may have been abandoned by the Patuxet. But at least some of the stored corn was owned by the nearby <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauset">Nauset</a> Tribe. This food theft may have contributed to some of the early violence between the two groups.<br />
<br />
Even so, the first winter was extremely difficult. Weather and hunger probably contributed to the susceptibility of disease. Nearly half of the passengers and crew died over the winter. Many of the survivors were too weak to work or defend the colony. There were several encounters with natives over the winter, resulting in some undetermined number of Indians killed. Almost all the adult women died, leaving only four survivors by the fall of 1621.<br />
<br />
<b>Relations with the Natives:</b><br />
<br />
The next stroke of fortune for the colony came in March. A single Indian approached the fortified camp and made clear he wanted to talk. To everyone's shock the Indian, named Samoset, spoke English and was looking for beer. He had been in contact with other European ships in recent years. A week later, Samoset brought others including a man the Pilgrims came to know as <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squanto">Squanto</a>.<br />
<br />
Squanto was the only known survivor of the Patuxet tribe that had once lived on this land as part of the tribe that had been wiped out by disease. Squanto had been captured at around age 20 by an English explorer and taken back to England. He was trained as an interpreter in hope of future English dealings with the natives. He returned to the area with Capt. John Smith in 1614, but was immediately recaptured by another Englishman under Smith's command, operating his own scheme to sell Indians as slaves in Spain. Squanto was transported to Spain as a slave. A group of friars in Spain freed him and helped him get back to London, where he hoped to find a way back home. He worked in London for several years as a ship builder before getting work on a ship headed for Newfoundland in 1617. The voyage never got near his home and he ended up returning to London. Finally, in 1619, he made his sixth trip across the Atlantic to reach him home. Once there, he learned the devastating news that his entire tribe had been wiped out by disease. Alone, he began to live with the nearby <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wampanoag_people">Wampanoag</a> tribe.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
As the new English encampment began to take shape over the winter, the Wampanoag Chief wanted to make contact with this new group. Who better than the man who spoke their language? Squanto went to live with the Pilgrim community. He taught them farming techniques with the native crops, but more importantly, opened a dialogue with the local tribes. Through him, the Pilgrims were able to apologize to the Nauset for stealing their corn and agree to compensate them, which greatly improved relations. They also entered into a mutual defense pack with the Wampanoag Indians. The Wampanoag were being threatened by the nearby Naroganset tribe and hoped the English would be valuable military allies with their technology: guns and armor.<br />
<br />
Squanto was invaluable to the Pilgrims. One has to marvel at the sequence of events that delivered this interpreter to the Pilgrim's front door just when they needed it most. With no tribe of his own, Squanto quickly became a valued member of the Colony. At one point, he was captured by the Wampanoag and a group of Colonists risked their lives to rescue him.<br />
<br />
Sadly, Squanto died only a year and a half after joining the colony. It is unclear if he died of disease or was poisoned by a local chief who was jealous of his growing power because of his unique position between the natives and colonists. In any event, his short service, created decades of good relations between the colonists and Wampanoag. Warfare would only return a generation later as Puritan influence from Massachusetts and outsider demands for access to more Indian lands resulted in a destructive war.<br />
<br />
<b>The First Thanksgiving</b><br />
<br />
At least the first harvest was successful. There is relatively little known about the first Thanksgiving. The only contemporary reference comes from a publication written by colonist <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Winslow">Edward Winslow</a>:<br />
<br />
<i>“And God be praised we had a good increase… Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, that so we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, amongst other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their greatest king Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which they brought to the plantation and bestowed on our governor, and upon the captain and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.”</i><br />
<br />
One thing we know is that there were not many women. Remember that only four of the 52 colonists still living were adult women. The 90 natives that came to the event were apparently all men as well. Deer is mentioned as a major component of the feast, which lasted three days. There as also the results of a fowling expedition. Presumably this included wild turkey, but also likely included goose and duck. <br />
<br />
I picture this first Thanksgiving as a large scale multi-day barbecue, with deer roasting on an open spit, dozens of men enjoying the celebration, and lots and lots of beer. Yes, the Pilgrims were major beer drinkers. A large barley harvest had been grown that year primarily for making beer. Men, women, and children all consumed large quantities of beer, although it was rather weak and did not typically lead to drunkenness. There were also shooting contests and other outdoor games.<br />
<br />
The Colonists did not call this feast "Thanksgiving". Giving thanks to God would likely have been a somber event in Church, not a three day man-fest of celebration, games, and eating. As the feast took place before the second ship reached the colony in early November, most historians believe the event took place some time in October. It appears to be a celebration but was also a time for bonding between the colonists and the Wampanoag, when the groups could get together and enjoy one another's company.<br />
<br />
<b>Relations within the Colony:</b><br />
<br />
Even with some native assistance, the first few years of the colony were particularly difficult. The <i>Mayflower</i> returned to England in April, leaving the colonists on their own. They had to plant crops, open up trade talks with natives, build more structures, and begin to figure out how to repay the investors who had sponsored their voyage. Under the terms agreed, the Colony would live and work communally to provide the English investors with a profitable return on their work.<br />
<br />
Work was hard and survival seems to have been the main focus of the colonists. There is little mention of any religious or sectarian strife between members of the Congregation and other colonists.<br />
<br />
One example of inter-religious relations was related by Bradford, now Governor of the small colony. The Pilgrims did not celebrate Christmas, considering it of pagan origin. But other members of the Colony did wish to remember it, as was traditional in England. As Bradford recalls Christmas 1621, <i>"On the day called Christmas Day, the Governor called them out to work as was used. But the most of this new company excused themselves and said it went against their consciences to work on that day. So the governor told them that if they made it a matter of conscience, he would spare them till they were better informed; so he led away the rest and left them." </i>In other words, Colonists not members of the congregation were permitted to celebrate Christmas, even though the Pilgrims chose to work that day. Now, Bradford continues in his story to say the Pilgrims returned at lunch time to find the others out playing games. Bradford stopped the merriment and told them they could celebrate Christmas as their religion respected, but that it was not fair that they play games and relax while others are doing the work necessary for the colony's survival. Once could argue this was religious intolerance since relaxing on Christmas was part of the minority's tradition. But it seems more that Bradford was worried that "freedom of religion" might just become an easy excuse for getting out of the work that needed to get done.<br />
<br />
Surprisingly, the colony did not have a minister during these early several years. John Robinson, the minister to the Congregation that moved from Scrooby, England to Leiden in the Netherlands did not make the initial trip because the majority of the congregation remained in Leiden. He had intended to travel to the colony, but died before a trip could be arranged. Several Church of England ministers were sent but rejected by the colonists. The first acceptable minister, Ralph Smith, did not arrive until 1629.<br />
<br />
In November 1621 another ship, the <i>Fortune</i>, arrived from England carrying 35 more passengers. Almost all of the passengers were sent by the English investors still focused on making the colony profitable. The new visitors did not do much for the dearth of female colonists as 34 of the 35 were men. The ship also carried an angry letter from Thomas Weston demanding to know why the dying colonists had not spent part of the winter collecting valuable trade items to ship back on the <i>Mayflower's</i> return and why they had kept the <i>Mayflower</i> with them for so long..<br />
<br />
The new arrivals found the colony so squalid and barren that they considered getting right back on the ship and returning to England. Many had to be talked out of returning by the ship's captain, who was not authorized to take them home again. They also arrived without any supplies. As Bradford put it: "<i>When they were landed they had not so much as a biscuit among them, or any other food, neither had they any bedding, nor many clothes, only some sorry things they had in their cabins, not even a pot or a pan in which to cook food."</i> The colony, which had barely stocked away enough winter food for the original colonists, had to put everyone on half-rations, and still ran out of food by spring.<br />
<br />
Despite these hardships, the colonists spent about two weeks collecting, packing and loading animal furs, oak clapboards, and other trade goods to begin paying down their debt to the investors. It would have pleased the investors to receive this down payment, had not the ship gotten lost on its return and been captured off the French coast. French authorities seized all the cargo, but eventually allowed the empty ship and crew to return to England and the frustrated investors.<br />
<br />
The Colony did not receive another visit for almost two years, when in the summer of 1623, two ships arrived with 96 more colonists, including more of the congregation from Leiden. The colony became active in the fur trade, starting a large trading post in what is today Maine to collect more furs to help pay off their debts. More colonists continued to arrive in the late 1620's. But after 10 years, the colony had grown to only about 300 people.<br />
<br />
<b>The Massachusetts Bay Colony</b><br />
<br />
In 1630, a group of Puritans arrived, founding the Massachusetts Bay Colony nearby in what would become Boston. The first group included a fleet of ships with over 700 passengers, immediately making the new colony more than double the size of the Pilgrim's in Plymouth Colony. Over the next ten years the Puritans poured into Massachusetts so that within 10 years, there were nearly 10,000 colonists. This influx led to war with the Indians in 1637. The Pilgrims in Plymouth tried to act as peace keepers, but ultimately had to side with and fight along side their fellow colonists against the Indians.<br />
<br />
<b>The End of the Plymouth Colony</b><br />
<br />
After the end of the English Civil War, <a href="http://www.royal.gov.uk/historyofthemonarchy/kingsandqueensoftheunitedkingdom/thestuarts/charlesii.aspx">King Charles II</a> began to pay more attention to the North American Colonies. The English found the large number of small colonies difficult to administer and decided to create the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_of_New_England">Dominion of New England</a>, which eventually included all the land from what is today New Jersey to Maine.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "tahoma" , "helvetica" , "freesans" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.88px;">Charles II essentially </span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "tahoma" , "helvetica" , "freesans" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.88px;">obliterated Plymouth as </span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: "arial" , "tahoma" , "helvetica" , "freesans" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.88px;">an independent colony.</span></div>
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<br />
The new government met with strong opposition to measures which included new taxes, trade restrictions, challenges to local land claims and attempts to impose the Church of England in the region. Remember, Charles II had seen his father executed by Puritans in England during the Civil War, and was not a fan of Puritans. The short-lived Dominion of New England was dissolved by 1691, but the legal authority for the colonies had to be recreated. As you will recall, the Plymouth Colony founded without a charter because it settled outside of Virginia. The Massachusetts Bay Colony charter had been revoked when New England was established. Massachusetts leaders were able to get their charter restored and have it include the lands claimed by the Plymouth Colony. As a result, Plymouth was absorbed into Massachusetts and would never again operate independently.<br />
<br />
<b>Summary:</b><br />
<br />
Much of what we remember about the Plymouth Colony Pilgrims comes from the Puritans of Massachusetts, who essentially co-opted the Pilgrims' story into their own. Religiously, there were certainly similarities between the two groups, though politically they were very different. Because the Pilgrims were such a small group, and remained small, they simply came to be remembered incorrectly as the first wave of Puritan settlement in New England. The subtle distinctions tend to get lost in the story telling of history.<br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-12-24T05_41_53-08_00" target="_blank">Podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
<b>For Further Reading:</b><br />
<br />
<b>Books:</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
<i><a href="http://www.amazon.com/Mayflower-Story-Courage-Community-War/dp/0143111973">Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War</a> </i>by Nathaniel Philbrick (2007).<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Online:</b><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www1.umassd.edu/euro/2009papers/bryant.pdf">http://www1.umassd.edu/euro/2009papers/bryant.pdf</a> - A discussion of the congregation's life in Leiden, Netherlands.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.histarch.illinois.edu/plymouth/mourt1.html">http://www.histarch.illinois.edu/plymouth/mourt1.html</a> - The reports filed by the Pilgrims for their investors in England.<br />
<br />
<a href="https://archive.org/details/OfPlymouthPlantation">https://archive.org/details/OfPlymouthPlantation</a> - Gov. Bradford's account of the voyage and Colony's foundation<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.revjohnrobinson.com/writings.htm">http://www.revjohnrobinson.com/writings.htm</a> - Writings of John Robinson, the congregation's founder.<br />
<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-13800005636645693282015-11-07T07:11:00.000-05:002016-12-11T17:31:51.377-05:00History of Veterans' BenefitsListen to this episode as a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-12-11T13_44_35-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a>.<br />
<br />
As Veterans Day is upon us I thought it might be interesting to take a look at the way the US has treated its Veterans throughout history. <br />
<br />
<b>The American Revolution:</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
The Revolution began before we even had a government. The brave volunteers were more concerned about being hanged as traitors if they lost, much less their treatment if they won. But the Continental Congress created an army and navy and made promises to the men who served.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Picture of a Revolutionary War Soldier</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
from an 1820 Pension Payment Voucher</div>
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There were desperate times during the war when men considered leaving the army and Congress had nothing of value to offer. So, in 1778, Congress voted to provide all American commissioned officers who agreed to continue in service until the close of the war, a continuation of half pay for another seven years. Enlisted men got a one time payment of eighty dollars (roughly $1000 in today's dollars).<br />
<br />
Despite these promises, Congress continued to face threats of mass resignation as the war continued to drag on with no end. At the same time, inflation was eating into the value of pay and promised pensions. In 1780, Congress extended the offer to officers to receive half pay for life.<br />
<br />
When the war finally ended, Congress had no money to provide back pay, let alone pensions. Instead of back pay, Congress had to give all officers and men "commutation certificates" which might be redeemed for money at some later date. But, there was no guarantee when they could be redeemed, nor any interest paid on them. In the meantime, rampant inflation made the certificates virtually worthless. Most veterans sold them to speculators before everything was lost. If you held onto your certificate for a decade or so, you would have been able to redeem them. After the Constitution was established and a new monetary system created, the Federal Government finally made good on these debts. But few veterans were able to wait that long or take that chance. Final payment primarily benefited the speculators.<br />
<br />
But good news! Congress finally kept its promise on the pensions. The Congress passed a law granting full pay for life for all Revolutionary War veterans, both officers and enlisted men. The problem was this law passed in 1826, about 50 years after the war. So if you were an 80 year old veteran at a time when the average life span in this country was about 35 years, you finally got some pension money. In 1864, Congress granted an additional stipend of $100/year to remaining veterans of the Revolution. As you may guess, there were not many left, more than 80 years after the war had ended. The government made last pension payment from the Revolution in 1869.<br />
<br />
There was also a <a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/3123809?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">Pension Act</a> passed in 1818 which offered a pay of $20/month to former officers and $8/month to former enlisted men of the Revolution who served for at least nine months. This law, however, only applied if the veteran was impoverished. The Government examined income and property holdings and denied most claims. Lest the veteran grow too fat and happy on that pension (about $300/month in today's dollars for an officer, $120 for enlisted), he was required to give up any disability or State pensions being received in exchange for the federal pension.<br />
<br />
The pension laws did cover men who served in State militia units as well as the Continental Army and Navy. But there were many women who traveled with the army in support roles. They were denied any benefits. Some African American veterans were granted freedom from slavery in exchange for enlistment. Since it was decided that they had already received that benefit, there was no need to provide any pension benefit to them.<br />
<br />
Many Revolutionary War soldiers had been promised land bounties as well. The US had a great deal of western lands to make available to veterans after the war. But the government found a way to screw the veterans on this promise as well. To redeem a land bounty, one had to file a claim of at least 4000 acres. Most bounties were for a few dozen or perhaps a few hundred acres depending on rank and term of service. One could theoretically combine one's claim with those of others to make a joint claim. But coordination like that between veterans was nearly impossible. It did, however, benefit speculators who could buy up many claims and combine them together for redemption.<br />
<br />
<b>The War of 1812 and the Mexican War</b><br />
<br />
The Pension act of 1818 applied to veterans of wars after the Revolution as well. But again, these pensions only applied if the veteran demonstrated financial need or suffered a war wound that prevented them from working. They were very difficult to get and to keep. Since many Americans saw them as an early form of welfare, they did not want to apply for them.<br />
<br />
Mexican War veterans were promised 160 acres of western land. This was of benefit to some veterans interested in settling in the west were unclaimed land was still plentiful. However, settlement of these lands was a real danger as many settlers were massacred by Indians. Many soldiers, however, sold their claims to speculators for a fraction of their true value.<br />
<br />
Disabled veterans and windows of those killed in the war could apply for a half-pay pension. For private, this amounted to $3.50/mo (roughly $100/mo in today's dollars).<br />
<br />
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</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Philadelphia Naval Asylum</td></tr>
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In 1871, general pensions were made available for almost all veterans of the War of 1812. Again, this was more than 50 years after the War, so most veterans were long dead. Survivors could enjoy $8/month (about $160/month in today's dollars). In 1887, veterans of the Mexican War were added to the rolls. They only had to wait about 40 years! To prevent any of the youngest soldiers from getting an early pension, a provision was added requiring recipients be at least 62 years old. Of course, any veterans from either war that has professed even the slightest verbal support for the South during the Civil War were denied all benefits despite their loyal service in the earlier wars.<br />
<br />
During this period, the government also began to consider the medical care of wounded veterans. The Naval Asylum, was established in Philadelphia in 1812. Two facilities were established in Washington, D.C. -- the Soldiers’ Home in 1853 and St. Elizabeth’s Hospital in 1855. Obviously, these were of limited use if you did not live near Philadelphia or DC. But they did provide help to some.<br />
<br />
<b>Civil War</b><br />
<br />
The Civil War was the first real broad based veterans benefits system available to most of those who fought in the war. The first pension law was passed just after the war began, in 1862. It granted pensions to any soldier, sailor, or certain civilian contractors a pension of $8-$32 per month (mostly dependent on rank) for any soldier suffering a disabling injury, or to the family of any soldier killed while in service. A big change in this law was that deaths from disease as well as battle wounds were covered. Prior to WWII, most soldiers died from the many diseases that spread through the armies, than from wounds in battle. Still, this was not a lot of money. $8 was about half the pay of a private and would be about $190 in current dollars. Also, the veteran did not have to prove poverty. Most disabled veterans would likely be impoverished anyway given that most jobs required able bodies for physical labor. <br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Civil War Pension Record</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Book Cover</div>
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<br />
Congress also stopped all pensions for anyone living in a State that had seceded, even if the individual veteran remained loyal to the union.<br />
<br />
Unlike earlier wars, post war laws actually became more generous. In 1866, the minimum pension for disability went from $8 to $20, and increased again in 1872 to $24, or about $475 in today's dollars. Imagine living today on less than $6000 per year. It was not much, but better than had been provided to earlier veterans. The subsequent laws also loosened up the definitions of disability, resolving many criticisms of benefit denials against wounded vets who were not quite wounded enough. Soldiers on partial disability could receive some benefits, but had to be examined by a government certified doctor once or twice each year to prove the disability was continuing.<br />
<br />
A more comprehensive pension act was proposed in 1887, but was vetoed by Democratic President Grover Cleveland. Democrats received most support from the South, where virtually no veterans received federal benefits but would be obliged to pay for them through taxes. Passage would have to wait for the election of President Benjamin Harrison, a Republican and Union army veteran himself. <br />
<br />
The Pension Act, finally passed in 1890, established benefits for disabled veterans as well as families of those deceased. The big change in this law was that the death or disability need not have occurred during the war. Any veteran who became disabled at any time for any reason could receive a payment. Similarly, dependent family members could receive a pension for any veteran who died after the war, regardless of circumstances.<br />
<br />
In 1906 old age alone was defined as a disability, allowing virtually all (Union) Civil War veterans still living to receive a pension. Amazingly, in 1958, Congress decided to grant pensions to eligible Confederate veterans and their families. Sure this was 93 years after the war ended, so far too late for almost everyone But because the law included family members, there were a notable number of dependents, roughly 1000 southerners benefited from this change. Also, because Civil War pensions granted lifetime aid to children of veterans who were disabled before becoming adults, there is still one Civil War pension being paid today (2015) more than 150 years after the end of the war. The recipient is a daughter of a veteran who ironically served on both sides. He started with the Confederacy, but deserted and moved to the Union Army just before Gettysburg.<br />
<br />
<b>Spanish-American War</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Veterans of the Spanish American war benefited primarily from the same laws passed for Civil War veterans. Most of the laws on the books by this time benefited any US military veteran, regardless of the war in which they served. In 1912, the Sherwood Act guaranteed a pension to any veteran of any war beginning at the age of 62.<br />
<br />
<b>World War I</b><br />
<br />
As the US entered WWI, the Government established the <a href="https://archive.org/stream/jstor-1822411/1822411_djvu.txt">War Risk Insurance Act</a>. The essentially provided all members of the military with death or disability insurance, paying $4500 (roughly $82,000 in today's dollars). This was in addition to existing death or disability benefits that remained in the law. Soldiers could also purchase additional low cost insurance from the government if they wanted additional coverage. Another law granted a one time discharge allowance of $60 (just under $1000 in today's dollars) when soldiers left service with an honorable discharge.<br />
<br />
The Soldiers Rehabilitation Act of 1918 authorized vocational rehabilitation training. Rather than simply handing out cash payments to wounded veterans, the government took an active role in helping them train for jobs that could accommodate their disability.<br />
<br />
In 1919, veteran's medical care finally moved beyond a small number of military hospitals and was put under the responsibility of the Public Health Service.<br />
<br />
In 1921, new legislation combined the War Risk Insurance, rehabilitation, and medical care under a single department called the Veterans Bureau.<br />
<br />
Despite these reforms, benefits were still often hard to obtain and often considered too limited. One major complaint for WWI veterans was the fact that inflation had wiped out the value of much of their military pay while in service. Civilian government employees had received bonuses to compensate for loss due to inflation, but members of the military got nothing. President Harding vetoed the first bill arguing it was fiscally irresponsible. President Coolidge also vetoed a second attempt saying "patriotism...bought and paid for is not patriotism." This time, however, Congress overrode the veto and the bill became law in 1924.<br />
<br />
The Bonus Bill, formally called the <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3407400032.html">World War Adjustment Compensation Act</a> did not actually give any money to the veterans. Essentially it acted as a life insurance payment. Each soldier was entitled to up to $625 (about $8600 today), depending on their length of service. He received a certificate redeemable in 20 years for the cash amount. If the soldier died before then, the certificate could be redeemed at the time of death.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
US Army burns Veterans out of their Shantytown</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
in Washington DC, 1932</div>
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The Bonus Pay became a major political issue during the Great Depression. In 1932, veterans demanded early payment of these bonuses because so many of them had lost their jobs and were on the streets. When President Hoover refused to act, between 15,000 and 20,000 veterans marched on Washington to demand reform. They became known as the <a href="http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/trm203.html">Bonus Army</a> and set up shanty town in DC, many left after a few weeks of inaction, but several thousand remained in Anacostia with their families having nowhere else to go.. Rather than assist the veterans, the military, on orders for President Hoover and led by Gen. Douglas MacArthur, rolled tanks through the camp with tanks, killing several veterans and burning down the shantytown. The protesters were dispersed or arrested and no assistance was given. Shockingly, this action did not help President Hoover's reelection bid a few months later.<br />
<br />
Despite his treatment of the Bonus marchers, President Hoover was not deaf to the needs of Veterans. In 1930, he established the Veterans Administration. The new VA took over the responsibilities of the Veterans Bureau, as well as the Pensions Bureau and the national homes for soldiers.<br />
<br />
In March 1933, President Roosevelt passed the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_Act_of_March_20,_1933">Economy Act</a>, which repealed all statutory benefits for all veterans of the Spanish American War and later wars (but leaving benefits for Civil War veterans intact). The new law gave the President authority to establish benefits by executive order. The normally free spending Roosevelt slashed benefits. In 1935, his authority was ended and Congress renewed most of the benefits as they existed before the 1933 law.<br />
<br />
<b>World War II</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
On the eve of war in 1940, Congress passed the National Service Life Insurance Act, which provided low cost life insurance to members of the military. This is the basis for the law that exists to this day.<br />
<br />
That same year, the Selective Training and Service Act, which authorized the nation’s first peacetime draft, guaranteed reemployment rights to all employees who left a job to volunteer or because they were drafted into the armed forces. This legal guarantee also exists to this day.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ad for GI Bill Benefits</td></tr>
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The Disabled Veterans’ Rehabilitation Act of 1943 created a new vocational rehabilitation program for disabled World War II veterans. It was similar to the Soldiers Rehabilitation Act of WWI, but eventually grew much larger and broader in scope.<br />
<br />
The biggest change, however, was passage of the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, but more commonly known as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G.I._Bill">GI Bill</a>. This law had three key provisions: There were three key provisions.<br />
<ol>
<li>Education: authorized the payment of up to $500 (which was enough to pay for school at the time) per school year for tuition, fees, books and supplies, plus a monthly subsistence allowance.</li>
<li>Business loans: authorized federally guaranteed home, farm and business loans of up to $2,000, with no down payment and 50 percent guaranteed by the government.</li>
<li>Unemployment: veterans who had served a minimum of 90 days were entitled to a weekly payment of $20 for a maximum of 52 weeks. </li>
</ol>
Another law, the Veterans Preference Act of 1944 gave Veterans preference for government jobs, as well as mandating preferences for private employers receiving government contracts. The post-WWII era saw a major expansion in VA hospitals to provide care the large number of veterans.<br />
<br />
<b>Korean War</b><br />
<br />
Many of the assistance laws under the GI Bill had expired by the time of the Korean War. To provide assistance to a new generation of veterans, Congress passed the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1950, which created new job training for wounded veterans. The new law was expanded to assist peacetime veterans who might also need the help.<br />
<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Korean Veterans received fewer benefits</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
than their WWII counterparts, but they did </div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
get a memorial on the National Mall first.</div>
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The Veterans’ Readjustment Assistance Act of 1952, called the <a href="https://library.cqpress.com/cqalmanac/document.php?id=cqal52-1378844">Korean GI Bill</a>, provided unemployment, job placement, loans and other benefits similar to those provided to World War II veterans. The education component was reduced, offering benefits or only three years rather than four. It also did not pay for tuition directly. Rather veterans received checks to cover whatever expenses they wanted. For the most part, payments did not completely cover all of the costs needed to complete college.<br />
<br />
In 1958, Congress passed the Ex-Servicemen’s Unemployment Compensation Act. This created a permanent system of unemployment insurance for all veterans, regardless of when they served. States managed the plan which was supported by federal funds. Because States had some control over the details, amounts and duration of assistance varied.<br />
<br />
Around this same time, the VA changed pension plans to take into account need, rather than a fixed amount per soldier. Veterans with higher incomes and assets received less assistance, taking the program back to a welfare style program helping those who needed it most.<br />
<br />
<b>Vietnam War</b><br />
<br />
The Vietnam era saw another major expansion of VA hospitals. Combat medical care had improved so that many soldiers who might have died with similar wounds in earlier wars now survived. This resulted in a much higher need for medical care for returning veterans.<br />
<br />
In 1966, Congress passed the Veterans’ Readjustment Benefits Act, often called the Vietnam GI Bill, Veterans who had been on active duty for at least six months could receive one month of educational assistance for each month of service, later expanded to one and one-half months for each month of service. During the Vietnam era, most draftees served 18 to 24 months, meaning at most three years of educational assistance unless one opted to stay in the military for a longer term. No distinction was made between veterans who served in combat and those in non-combat deployments.<br />
<br />
The military also created the Servicemen’s Group Life Insurance, which provided $10,000 in life insurance to veterans. In 1971, Congress created the VA mortgage program to help disabled veterans pay for special accommodations to their homes.<br />
<br />
<b>Modern Era</b><br />
<br />
Following the end of the draft in 1976, new veterans benefits were created with the goal of attracting new recruits to the military The Veterans’ Educational Assistance Act of 1977 limited eligibility to those entering military service after Dec. 31, 1976. This program permitted a service member to contribute up to $2,700 to a personal education fund. The federal government would match the service member’s contribution with two dollars for each one contributed. Unfortunately, most service members did not take advantage of this 401(k) style system and it never received wide adoption.<br />
<br />
In 1978 Congress passed the Veterans’and Survivors’ Pension Improvement Act. This law must have been named ironically, because it did little to improve pensions. Rather, the new law considered not only the veteran's income and assets, but also those of his or her spouse, meaning that veterans with working spouses typically lost pension income. If a veteran or spouse received income from another source such as a job, a military pension would drop dollar for dollar to keep the income the same. This made work pointless for many veterans or spouses who might otherwise work at lower income jobs.<br />
<br />
In 1986, Congress changed laws related to medical care to cut the number of Veterans eligible for free medical care. Free benefits were limited to veterans with service-related disabilities and those with low incomes, as well as other specific groups of veterans, including former prisoners of war, veterans exposed to herbicides and ionizing radiation and veterans of World War I. Higher income veterans with non-service related disabilities would have to pay for part of their treatment.<br />
<br />
Realizing the failure of the 1976 education program, Congress replaced it with a new one that essentially forced service members to save. The Veterans’ Educational Assistance Act of 1984 provided educational assistance benefits of $300 per month for up to 36 months, in exchange for completing three years of active duty or two years of active duty and four years in the reserve. To be eligible. Part of this was paid for by requiring the service member (if he or she chose to participate) to have monthly pay reduced by $100 a month for the first 12 months of enlistment. The money was nonrefundable, so a recruit had to agree to it at the time of recruitment, and could not get the money back if they decided not to go to college after leaving service.<br />
<br />
Although the VA continued to provide some vocational assistance, the Emergency Veterans’ Job Training Act of 1983 reimbursed employers up to 50% of an employee's wages (up to $10,000) for hiring any Korean or Vietnam era veterans.<br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizoU4K7CEiRkG7gXHMIqW0y_dyhFeL8xcZf4VjphmVLPPYOgC0v0t2ejdDCqEYEMOa2pQlNG9H6DnQAweytaIruDGyOCP2EzTmPCOyTl9HLrhqZf2yHp2n2RpayAqwvZVV-h8tEA5qL0L1/s1600/Reagan-Signing-Cab-Ceremony-Veterans-Affairs.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="160" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizoU4K7CEiRkG7gXHMIqW0y_dyhFeL8xcZf4VjphmVLPPYOgC0v0t2ejdDCqEYEMOa2pQlNG9H6DnQAweytaIruDGyOCP2EzTmPCOyTl9HLrhqZf2yHp2n2RpayAqwvZVV-h8tEA5qL0L1/s200/Reagan-Signing-Cab-Ceremony-Veterans-Affairs.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
President Reagan signs the law elevating </div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
the VA to Cabinet level, after cutting</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
veterans' medical benefits. </div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
In 1990, Congress limited disability pensions, which had been granted automatically to any veteran over the age of 65. Under the new law, veteran applicants of any age had to prove they had a permanent total disability in order to qualify for a pension.<br />
<br />
Despite these cuts, the administration wanted to appear to care for Veterans. In 1988 it elevated the VA to cabinet level status, meaning the Veterans Administration became the Department of Veterans Affairs. So the head of the VA got to sit in on Cabinet meetings, but little else changed for veterans themselves.<br />
<br />
In the 1990's the first Gulf War prompted some minor improvements to benefits, but no major changes to those eligible for benefits.<br />
<br />
Today the VA receives around $170 billion per year. With about 22 million veterans in the US, that means we spend amount $7700 per veteran per year. About one-third of this goes to disability payments to disabled veterans. The other major cost is medical care, mostly supporting the large network of VA hospitals and clinics around the country. There is also a wide array of other benefit programs for veterans covering education, training, housing, retirement, and burial. <br />
<br />
<b>Conclusion:</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Over time, as the US has grown wealthier, it has done more for its veterans. It also tends to be more generous after a large war that has produced a large number of veterans. Of course, controversy continues to this day as to the cost and level of coverage provided to those who risked their lives to protect this country in times of danger.<br />
<br />
Listen to this episode as a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-12-11T13_44_35-08_00" target="_blank">podcast</a>.<br />
<br />
<b>Further Reading:</b><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.socialwelfarehistory.com/social-security/veterans-pensions-early-history/">http://www.socialwelfarehistory.com/social-security/veterans-pensions-early-history/</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.nps.gov/revwar/unfinished_revolution/veteran_entitlements.htm">http://www.nps.gov/revwar/unfinished_revolution/veteran_entitlements.htm</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/spring/civilwarpension.html">http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2010/spring/civilwarpension.html</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://drbronsontours.com/pensionsunderstandingcivilwarpensions.html">http://drbronsontours.com/pensionsunderstandingcivilwarpensions.html</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.nytimes.com/1862/08/12/news/army-pensions-instructions-forms-be-observed-applying-for-them-under-act-july-14.html?pagewanted=all">http://www.nytimes.com/1862/08/12/news/army-pensions-instructions-forms-be-observed-applying-for-them-under-act-july-14.html?pagewanted=all</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.civilwarhome.com/pensions.html">http://www.civilwarhome.com/pensions.html</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.va.gov/opa/publications/archives/docs/history_in_brief.pdf">http://www.va.gov/opa/publications/archives/docs/history_in_brief.pdf</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.navywarof1812.org/benefits-for-naval-veterans">http://www.navywarof1812.org/benefits-for-naval-veterans</a><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-86581036195977579692015-10-24T10:04:00.000-04:002016-12-07T17:00:34.116-05:00President for a Day?Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-12-04T17_11_08-08_00" target="_blank">Podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
The shortest term of office in the White House was President <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/williamhenryharrison">William Henry Harrison</a>, who died after a mere 32 days in office. Pres Harrison gave the longest inaugural address ever, clocking in at 1 hr 45 minutes. He gave it outside, in a snowstorm, without wearing a hat or coat. As a result, he caught pneumonia and died a month later.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg19ssdoDNndFCtEyipfD_CZzV_IaoSao6HR-XHRfNfhxqi083Yqfoj_CaF-qfj6j3cGKlVh3soxfnyZZjNk8trISc93E_Jp6AFsHEeQsYa8zziqdUYiaXpWvVpMtMGOA3MuqCqtnOeVfhJ/s1600/hith-24-hour-president-atchinson-V.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg19ssdoDNndFCtEyipfD_CZzV_IaoSao6HR-XHRfNfhxqi083Yqfoj_CaF-qfj6j3cGKlVh3soxfnyZZjNk8trISc93E_Jp6AFsHEeQsYa8zziqdUYiaXpWvVpMtMGOA3MuqCqtnOeVfhJ/s200/hith-24-hour-president-atchinson-V.jpeg" width="171" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
David Rice Atchison</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Unknown President?</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
But there are some trivia buffs who argue another President served an even shorter term. David Rice Atchison, by some accounts was the 12th President of the United States, serving a term of one day.<br />
<br />
Wait, who the heck is David Rice Atchison? Atchison was a Senator from Missouri. He was also the <a href="http://www.senate.gov/reference/Index/President_Pro_Tempore.htm">President Pro Tempore</a> of the Senate, a largely ceremonial position that is today given to the most senior Senator in the majority party.<br />
<br />
On March 4, 1849 the Presidential term of<a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/jamespolk"> James K. Polk</a> expired and he left town. The problem was, March 4 was a Sunday. The newly elected President, <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/zacharytaylor">Zachary Taylor</a> refused to take the oath of office on the Sabbath. His Vice President also refused. As a result, there was no one serving as President.<br />
<br />
Under the<a href="http://www.amendment25.com/1792.html"> Presidential Succession Act of 1792</a>, the next in line to be President was, the President Pro Tempore of the Senate, our good old friend Sen. David Rice Atchison. By some accounts, Sen. Atchison was jokingly sworn in as President, appointed a few of his buddies to high cabinet positions, had a few drinks and then went to sleep, attending Pres. Taylor's inauguration the following morning. Sen. Atchison himself spread many of these stories over the years. In an 1872 newspaper interview, Atchison said:<br />
<br />
<i>"It was in this way: Polk went out of office on 3 March 1849, on Saturday at 12 noon. The next day, the 4th, occurring on Sunday, Gen. Taylor was not inaugurated. He was not inaugurated till Monday, the 5th, at 12 noon. It was then canvassed among Senators whether there was an interregnum (a time during which a country lacks a government). It was plain that there was either an interregnum or I was the President of the United States being chairman of the Senate, having succeeded Judge Mangum of North Carolina. The judge waked me up at 3 o'clock in the morning and said jocularly that as I was President of the United States he wanted me to appoint him as secretary of state. I made no pretense to the office, but if I was entitled in it I had one boast to make, that not a woman or a child shed a tear on account of my removing any one from office during my incumbency of the place."</i><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvcYsqIHZGra_m3TgWqyPuDp1G9K_h2txFF0ndURZZ3WcS_0zDnwdSfq1BwQPdJ0HUzKm4f8hbZRxyURqaHCaXB3429V3vaelqbmw0QjadKUMzOR3NwPSDnMnHBCA9A_PrmG61LVA371qA/s1600/hith-24-hour-president-plaque-AB.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvcYsqIHZGra_m3TgWqyPuDp1G9K_h2txFF0ndURZZ3WcS_0zDnwdSfq1BwQPdJ0HUzKm4f8hbZRxyURqaHCaXB3429V3vaelqbmw0QjadKUMzOR3NwPSDnMnHBCA9A_PrmG61LVA371qA/s320/hith-24-hour-president-plaque-AB.jpeg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Plaque from a Statue of Atchison in Plattsburg, Missouri</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
acknowledging his Presidential claims</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
On another occasion he joked about having <i>"the honestest administration this country ever had." D</i>espite the jokes, Atchison was always careful to make clear that he never attempted to assume the powers of the President or make any sort of pretense to the office. In another <a href="http://www.shapell.org/manuscript/david-rice-atchison-polk-fillmore-taylor-president-for-five-minutes">letter</a> written years after his "presidency", Atchison wrote:<br />
<br />
<i>"I never for a moment acted as President of the US, although I was President of the Senate, at the expiration of Mr. Polk’s term and inauguration of Genl Taylor [nor] yet for one moment did I ever consider that I was the legal President of the US, Genl Taylor was the legal Pres, & Millard Fillmore Vice President, either of whom had the legal right, to the Presidency although 31 hours elapsed between the egress of Mr. Polk and the taking of the oath by Genl Taylor."</i><br />
<br />
There are also many good <a href="http://cdn.history.com/sites/2/2015/05/hith-24-hour-president-plaque-AB.jpeg">arguments</a> why even technically Atchison never assumed the Presidency, though I think that many of these "mythbusters" make the argument with more certainty than is justified. Atchison had been sworn in as President Pro Tempore days earlier to maintain his position. He was next in line after the terms of the outgoing President and Vice President expired. By some accounts, he did take the Presidential oath, albeit as a joke.<i> </i>It is a pointless argument at this time though since he never actually attempted to exercise the powers of President.<br />
<br />
The Presidential Inauguration has fallen on a Sunday seven times. The first was under President <a href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/jamesmonroe">James Monroe</a>. But since it was for the beginning of his second term, there is a good claim that he never left the office and was not required to swear the oath again to continue in office. Subsequent Presidents have resolved this dilemma by being sworn in during a private ceremony either on Saturday the day before, or on Sunday, then opting for a public swearing in on Monday.<br />
<br />
<b>Life Before and After the Presidency</b><br />
<br />
While one may question his claim to the Presidency, David Rice Atchison did have a long and distinguished career. He served as a State legislator in Missouri, as a Circuit Court Judge and twelve years in the US Senate. He also served a a General in the State Militia. As a pro-slavery politician, he fought as an active duty General for the Confederates during the Civil War.<br />
<br />
Both the city of Atchison and Atchison County, Kansas as well as Atchison County, Missouri, are also named for him. His name also indirectly became part of the famous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atchison,_Topeka_and_Santa_Fe_Railway">Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad</a>. The railroad being named after the city of Atchison, Kansas.<br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-12-04T17_11_08-08_00" target="_blank">Podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
<b>For Further Reading:</b><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.history.com/news/the-24-hour-president">http://www.history.com/news/the-24-hour-president</a><br />
<b></b><br />
<a href="http://www.thecivilwarmuse.com/index.php?page=david-rice-atchison-memorial">http://www.thecivilwarmuse.com/index.php?page=david-rice-atchison-memorial</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.shapell.org/this-day-in-history/january/president-obamas-inauguration">http://www.shapell.org/this-day-in-history/january/president-obamas-inauguration</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/President_For_A_Day.htm">http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/President_For_A_Day.htm</a><br />
<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-48689504374556975402015-10-11T17:42:00.000-04:002016-12-10T14:46:08.438-05:00Columbus: Hero or Villian?Listen to the <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-11-27T08_04_20-08_00" target="_blank">Podcast</a> of this Episode<br />
<br />
<br />
Christopher Columbus has for centuries been portrayed as the hero explorer who discovered America for the Europeans. Yes, there is some evidence that Vikings may have arrived first. But since they did not publicize their discovery, it meant rather little to the world. Columbus has numerous cities, towns, counties, named after him throughout the western world. The US capital bears his name, as does a South American Nation. Columbus Day is a national holiday in the US and he is widely celebrated.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivnnvVeE-WLTom2VG2VC_g02lfKCgCfOqQdw4V2ChEyO8viewRD66hHgOz-I-EO2LzthPKSMcdX1u-iGjFo2z_KR1gX5sxZW5tyXh8-W-__ph3ScU0Bj4IIuj29AKmTpMgQZrdc2h_1SXb/s1600/Columbus.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEivnnvVeE-WLTom2VG2VC_g02lfKCgCfOqQdw4V2ChEyO8viewRD66hHgOz-I-EO2LzthPKSMcdX1u-iGjFo2z_KR1gX5sxZW5tyXh8-W-__ph3ScU0Bj4IIuj29AKmTpMgQZrdc2h_1SXb/s200/Columbus.jpg" width="155" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Christopher Columbus</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Like any figure, the man also has his detractors. Many Native American groups blame Columbus for all woes caused by the great European migrations to the Americas in the centuries following his discovery. Some academics deride him as a criminal guilty of enslavement and genocide.<br />
<br />
Certainly his discoveries changed the world forever. Many benefited, many were harmed by subsequent events. There is no doubt his discovery had a greater impact on world history that even most kings and generals ever achieve.<br />
<br />
There are many great books that go into the details know of Columbus' life and the systems that his discovery facilitated. My little blog post cannot address all of that. Instead, I intend to focus on his four voyages and what his actions tell us about the man and his motives.<br />
<br />
<b>Crossing the Atlantic Ocean:</b><br />
<br />
The year 1492 is one of those years all students of history learn as a key turning point in history. It is the year of Columbus' first expedition across the Atlantic Ocean to what would become known as the New World.<br />
<br />
Columbus, an Italian (actually, from Genoa as there was no Italian nation at that time) had for many years tried to convince various countries to back his attempt to cross the Ocean and find a shorter route to the Indies (what we know today as China, Japan and SE Asia). He or his brother met with monarchs in Britain, France, Portugal, and Spain. Contrary to popular myth, he was not rejected because they thought the world was flat. That was a fiction apparently invented by <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Irving">Washington Irving</a>, who wrote a <a href="https://books.google.com/books/about/A_History_of_the_Life_and_Voyages_of_Chr.html?id=uIADAAAAQAAJ">Biography of Columbus</a> in 1828. Rather, scientists of the time calculated the curvature of the Earth to estimate the size of our planet. By those calculations, they concluded (correctly) that there was simply too much distance between Europe and Asia for any ship of the time to cross the ocean without running out of food and water.<br />
<br />
Still, even if there was a small possibility of finding such a route, the cost of a small expedition against the potential riches of finding a new trade route. The reality is that there had been various voyages into the Atlantic in search of new lands. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_II_of_Portugal">King John II of Portugal</a> authorized such an attempt after hearing Columbus' proposal.<br />
<br />
Columbus was not the first choice to head such an expedition for several reasons. One was that he was a foreigner. Probably more importantly were his excessive demands. As a reward for his expedition, Columbus wanted to become a Spanish Noble, obtain a hereditary title of "Admiral of the Ocean Sea" which could be passed to his children, the right to serve as Governor and Viceroy of all lands he discovered, and ten percent of all revenues from trade with the newly discovered lands. Such wealth and power bestowed on a commoner and foreigner was not a comfortable position for many leaders. <br />
<br />
Columbus eventually got approval because he convinced the Spanish Queen that he could be successful where everyone else failed. Part of it was his dedication to the mission. He sailed so far that if he had not found land, he would not have had the supplies to return. He even had to lie to his crew about how far they had sailed in order to prevent a mutiny. Most other explorers were not willing to put their lives on the line like that.<br />
<br />
The other reason was that Columbus knew something that others did not. Years earlier Columbus had married the daughter of the Portuguese former Governor of the Azores, Islands in the Atlantic. According to some researchers, his father-in-law's papers included a great many charts providing information related to wind patters and sea currents. Columbus realized that winds across the Atlantic blew consistently to the west and others to the east. By using these paths, later known as the <a href="http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/currents/05currents2.html">trade winds</a>, Columbus was able to use <a href="http://sailing-ships.oktett.net/square-rigging.html">square rig sails</a>, which allowed his ships to travel much faster across the ocean. Other attempts used more traditional sails, which had the advantage of going the direction you wanted to go, even if the winds were not going in exactly that direction.<br />
<br />
<b>The First Voyage:</b><br />
<br />
Historians typically say that Columbus' goal was to find a new trade route to the orient. Detractors often argue his goal was focused more on military domination and suppression. In fact, Columbus' own stated goals mention neither of those things. His diary, which was clearly written with the intent that it would be read by others and become public, states his primary goal of spreading Christianity to the Indies:<br />
<br />
<i>"Your Highnesses, as Catholic Christians, and princes who love and promote the holy Christian faith, and are enemies of the doctrine of Mahomet [Muhammad], and of all idolatry and heresy, determined to send me, Christopher Columbus, to the above-mentioned countries of India, to see the said princes, people, and territories, and to learn their disposition and the proper method of converting them to our holy faith...</i>"<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.sheltonstate.edu/Uploads/files/faculty/Chuck%20Boening/us%20history%20maps/Columbus'%20First%20Voyage.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="335" src="https://www.sheltonstate.edu/Uploads/files/faculty/Chuck%20Boening/us%20history%20maps/Columbus'%20First%20Voyage.jpg" width="400" /></a>Cynics have argued that conversion was merely a way to convince <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile">Queen Isabella</a> to support his voyage. The Queen had just spent years of war <a href="http://www.americanthinker.com/articles/2013/05/the_expulsion_of_the_moors.html">expelling the Muslims from Spain</a> centuries after the Moors had invaded and occupied much of the land. She also forced the <a href="http://www.sephardicstudies.org/decree.html">expulsion or conversion of all Jews in Spain</a>. Clearly, conversion to the "true faith" was a highly motivating factor. It is possible that Columbus simply played on the Queen's religious faith in order to get what he wanted.<br />
<br />
But a closer look at everything Columbus wrote, and his many actions indicate he was a true believer in propagation of the Christian faith. He had read the writings of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Polo">Marco Polo</a> and was focused on the interest of the Grand Khan's desire to receive emissaries from the Pope as well as holy oil from Jerusalem. Columbus understood this to mean the people of the east were eager for conversion and would receive the word of God if offered to them.<br />
<br />
By all accounts, Columbus was a deeply religious man. Almost all lands that he named were named after Saints or other Biblical references. Columbus solemnly prayed and followed the teachings of the Church. There is even some evidence that he later joined the Holy order of St. Francis as a lay member of the order. All evidence indicates Columbus was a deeply religious man and that his primary goal was of a religious nature.<br />
<br />
Of course, at this time, there was no separation of Church and State. Conversion of the natives could be seen as a step toward forcing them into a position of political, economic, and social subservience to Spain as well. But remember, Columbus was not expecting to encounter a relatively disorganized mixture of tribes with inferior military abilities. He thought he was sailing to the Indies, a large organized empire with a formidable military. Clearly he had no illusions about conquering such an empire with three small ships.<br />
<br />
At the same time however, Columbus had forced the Spanish to grant him the hereditary authority to be Governor and Viceroy of all lands that he discovered. If there were people living on those lands, they would already have some form of government, who would not likely simply concede authority to some foreigner who simply stepped on their land. There must have been some notion from the outset that there would be military force used to take control of the new lands, if not on the first voyage, perhaps on subsequent ones.<br />
<br />
At least on the first voyage, however, domination does not seem to be a goal. These were Columbus' comments on Oct. 12, 1492, when he met the first natives that he encountered:<br />
<br />
<i>“I knew that they were a people who could be more easily freed and converted to our holy faith by love than by force, gave to some of them red caps, and glass beads to. put round their necks, and many other things of little value, which gave them great pleasure, and made them so much our friends that it was a marvel to see. They afterwards came to the ship’s boats where we were, swimming and bringing us parrots, cotton threads in skeins, darts, and many other things; and we exchanged them for other things that we gave them, such as glass beads and small bells. In fine, they took all, and gave what they had with goodwill." </i><br />
<br />
Columbus, however, goes on to indicate he considers the possibility of making the natives into servants: <i> "They should be good servants and intelligent, for I observed that they quickly took in what was said to them, and I believe that they would easily be made Christians, as it appeared to me that they had no religion. I, our Lord being pleased, will take hence, at the time of my departure, six natives for your Highnesses, that they may learn to speak."</i><br />
<br />
Some have taken comments like this to mean that he kidnapped a number of natives to bring back to Spain. Records indicate he took somewhere between 10 and 25 natives back to Spain and that 6 or 8 of them survived the journey. The deaths do not indicate any particular harsh treatment. Ship conditions were ripe with disease. Natives with immune systems unable to defend against European diseased tended to die in high numbers, regardless of care.<br />
<br />
My reading of the original records does not indicate that Columbus took natives by force. More plausibly, he simply convinced some of them to return with him, probably indicating many benefits to them and their people if they could learn the language of the Europeans. There is nothing to indicate that they were taken by force or violence or that there was any hostile incident with the natives (which one would assume of taken by force). It would seem then that they likely came of their own accord. There are numerous references in his diary to encounters with people who come to the ship to trade and then return to the land. When the crew brought one native on a ship by force after he refused to climb aboard, Columbus went out of his way to give the man several gifts and to return him to his canoe in order to avoid any hard feelings. If he was making efforts to remain on good terms with the natives, it seems unlikely he would have several of them simply stored as kidnap victims in his hold.<br />
<br />
So while Columbus' first visit seems to have been rather peaceful, there are ominous comments throughout his diary that he is thinking about where to place forts and how the locals might be brought under his authority.<br />
<br />
Columbus returned to Spain with the natives, as well as many items received in trade. Columbus had acquired some gold, which he turned over to the crown along with many new plants and animals, including tobacco. These would encourage the King and Queen to support a second voyage.<br />
<br />
<b>The Second Voyage:</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Whatever the unstated motives of his first voyage, the second voyage in 1493 seemed to be geared toward conquest. Columbus led a fleet of 17 ships, which included over 1200 men. They clearly planned to establish permanent colonies. There would also be continued exploration as the expedition searched for mainland China and Japan as described by Marco Polo (Columbus never realized that he was still thousands of miles away from Asia). Columbus remained in the area for almost three years, sending other ships back and forth across the Atlantic with additional supplies and information.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgylgaRmLRFY1IvUtfDlmB_CWVrJKbHJBHyT-yQvy9rFMtFWHBPiu3uage7QHWObvaNjMEhdEF6fUDWaqBNMGqyqY9PTWNYsAalrMjSJQl_-SELccWulnqZN16eb1i9Plsg4kOm7OCLjXs_/s1600/Columbus-voyage-2.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="232" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgylgaRmLRFY1IvUtfDlmB_CWVrJKbHJBHyT-yQvy9rFMtFWHBPiu3uage7QHWObvaNjMEhdEF6fUDWaqBNMGqyqY9PTWNYsAalrMjSJQl_-SELccWulnqZN16eb1i9Plsg4kOm7OCLjXs_/s400/Columbus-voyage-2.gif" width="400" /></a>On his first Voyage, Columbus' largest ship, the <i>Santa Maria</i>, sank in a storm. Several dozen men were left in a makeshift fort to await the return of the next voyage. By the time Columbus returned, the fort had been destroyed and all of the men killed. Friendly natives indicated the men had stirred up local anger by forming parties to loot villages and kidnap women. Columbus nevertheless went to war with the tribe he held responsible for the massacre.<br />
<br />
Columbus was under instructions by the Spanish Crown, not to enslave the natives. But it was traditional to enslave those captured in war, if the enemy was not a Christian. One might argue that these captured prisoners forced into service was a common practice all over the known world at the time. Columbus captured men, women, and children from the tribe responsible and allowed his men to use them as servants.<br />
<br />
If that was the extent of his actions, one might be willing to hold off on criticizing Columbus. But pressure mounted to show economic returns for his expedition. Not finding large amounts of gold or spices, Columbus had to do something. Despite being denied several requests to enslave the natives, Columbus eventually did so anyway. In 1495, his men rounded up roughly 1600 Arawak natives on Hispaniola and shipped 500 to Spain to be sold as slaves. There is no evidence that these natives were anything but peaceful and friendly. They were simply a convenient source of labor and something of value Columbus could send back to Spain. The Crown actually freed and returned some of these natives, but others ended up working as galley slaves for the Queen.<br />
<br />
It gets worse. Desperate to find gold, Columbus issues a decree to all the natives to present him with a small amount of gold every three months. Those who complied were given a small copper medallion to wear around their necks. Those without a medallion were considered criminals who could be executed on sight. The common practice was to cut off their hands and allow them to bleed to death.<br />
<br />
When it became clear to the Spaniards that there simply was not enough gold to be presented, they started rounding up natives to serve as labor on large plantations. Those who resisted were hanged or burned alive. Those who submitted often died quickly of disease or poor treatment. Many natives committed suicide or killed their own children to prevent them from suffering a worse fate. Within two years, half of the native population estimated at around 250,000 were dead. The remainder continued to die of so that by 1550, only 500 natives were still alive. A census during the next century indicated every single Arawak had been wiped off the island.<br />
<br />
Much of this policy began under Columbus, but continued after he returned to Spain in 1496, leaving his two brothers in control of his Spanish colonies.<br />
<br />
<b>Third Voyage:</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Columbus does not seem to have been a very good administrator and did not seem to enjoy it very much. At heart, he seems to have enjoyed being at sea as an explorer. His third voyage began in the spring of 1498 when he took six ships across the Atlantic. He sent three of his ships back to the colony on Hispaniola. Columbus himself took his other three ships and began exploring other areas. It was on this voyage that he first actually reached a new continent, South America.<br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy4dkbT24qZNeQc-cFxcWaDhK22PsyqAL9I1kpss9gIeqsHTbezZAbzn1Lr4XWxJVk3UztsLUZjIIdVSlInGsBRX2TOA6SMj1SQmK0cP_PxxFZJkHxckFtsUeXDBYJkZvjK6kDea9lXct3/s1600/Columbus-voyage-3.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="232" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiy4dkbT24qZNeQc-cFxcWaDhK22PsyqAL9I1kpss9gIeqsHTbezZAbzn1Lr4XWxJVk3UztsLUZjIIdVSlInGsBRX2TOA6SMj1SQmK0cP_PxxFZJkHxckFtsUeXDBYJkZvjK6kDea9lXct3/s400/Columbus-voyage-3.gif" width="400" /></a>He spent several months exploring the area, trading with the locals. There does not appear to have been any instances of Columbus engaging in enslavement, war, or violence of any kind during this trip. After several months, he finally returned to Hispaniola and took back control of the colony.<br />
<br />
Based on complaints of mismanagement by colonists, Spain sent <a href="http://www.britannica.com/biography/Francisco-de-Bobadilla">Francisco de Bobadilla</a> to investigate the Columbus brothers. Bobadilla was Spanish noble who had served the Crown with the expulsion of the Moors from Spain in the recent war. Some argue that he was biased against Columbus from the start, not happy that a foreigner and a commoner had been permitted to enter Spanish Nobility. Within days of his visit he had the Columbus brothers arrested, clapped in irons and shipped back to Spain. The fact that Columbus was arrested so quickly either means his maladministration was obvious, or that Bobadilla was biased against him from the start. The fact that Bobadilla assumed the role of Governor after the arrest certainly gives a selfish motive for his actions.<br />
<br />
Bobadilla filed a 48 page report of Columbus' actions as leader of the colony. A copy of this document was apparently discovered a few years ago in the Spanish archives. Unfortunately, it has not been digitized, transcribed, or translated as far as I can tell. It would be interesting to see this original indictment of Columbus, but all I have seen so far are some very short summaries of the accusations against him. As far as I can tell though, the reasons for arrest had nothing to do with treatment of natives. It had to do with punishments and discipline taken against the Spanish colonists. If one looks at nearly any early colony from any country, leaders often must make difficult and unpopular decisions for a variety of reasons. They rarely seem to be loved by the colonists. So this action by itself does not contribute to a necessarily negative view of Columbus.<br />
<br />
Within weeks after Columbus' return to Spain, he received a royal pardon and had his property and honors restored to him, with one exception. He was not permitted to reclaim the governorship of the Spanish colonies. There was never a trial. Columbus simply met with the King and Queen to discuss the situation. There are no known written records of the conversation. <br />
<br />
During this stay in Spain, Columbus had drafted his <a href="https://archive.org/details/cihm_45528">Book of Privileges</a> which describes in detail all of the honors and benefits he had been promised for his voyages. It also includes the Papal decree granting Spain control over the Americas. Since he seemed to be denied some of these promises, it appears he was creating a written record for himself and his family to keep what they had been promised.<br />
<br />
<b>Fourth Voyage:</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Columbus left yet again for a fourth expedition in the spring of 1502. He returned to a number of islands as well as the South and Central American coast. He attempted to return to Hispaniola but the new Governor would not permit him to leave his ship. He warned the local administration of a coming hurricane. The Administration ignored Columbus and allowed a fleet of 24 treasure ships to start off toward Spain. The fleet included Bobadilla who had been recalled by the Crown. Apparently his leadership was not appreciated either. The fleet was destroyed in the storm. Bobadilla drowned. Only one ship survived the storm. Ironically that ship was the one carrying Columbus' treasure and his personal effects.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggYaSIzPIOSj8EXetPkTKU6ighcbwpavyxge2Os2-N0zpkhCsM3ogMPZWPQr_NIkgkFNWm30jafztmRfvg-ngIMLFKBJYDJDlw-DTYKrX6J9n-pIOfaLl2YlM0be7dpjs1Jm_S2Ii1gHDl/s1600/Columbus-voyage-4.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="232" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggYaSIzPIOSj8EXetPkTKU6ighcbwpavyxge2Os2-N0zpkhCsM3ogMPZWPQr_NIkgkFNWm30jafztmRfvg-ngIMLFKBJYDJDlw-DTYKrX6J9n-pIOfaLl2YlM0be7dpjs1Jm_S2Ii1gHDl/s400/Columbus-voyage-4.gif" width="400" /></a>Columbus protected his own ships by taking shelter in an estuary during the storm. They received some damage but were still seaworthy. Columbus continued his exploration and interaction with natives. There was no indication that he attempted to enslave, capture, or kill any natives as long as he was not attacked first.<br />
<br />
Damage to the ships seemed to get worse as the travels continued. It appears that they became infected with termites or some similar wood eating insects. Columbus and his crew were forced to scuttle their sinking ships on Jamaica. Columbus was able to trade for a canoe with local natives and sent two men to Hispaniola for help. They arrived, but the Governor, the same one who denied Columbus the right to leave his ship while in harbor, refused to supply any rescue ships.<br />
<br />
Columbus ended up spending over a year on Jamaica with his crew. He as able to trade with the local natives for food and supplies. Several of his crew mutinied, stole several canoes and began looting the locals. Columbus continued to trade peacefully for what he needed. But locals, either angry with the actions of the mutineers or simply out of greed, either stopped trading, or demanded ever larger prices for food. Limited resources made things desperate. <br />
<br />
Columbus resolved his problem through some trickery. Aware that a lunar eclipse was due one night he summoned the local tribal leaders and told them that starving his crew would result in divine punishment. As a sign of this punishment, the moon would turn blood red that night. When the prediction came true, the Indians agreed the Columbus had a power or divine favor that could not be denied and continued to supply his crew. The fact that Columbus tried to maintain a system of fair trade rather than going to war with the natives indicates he was not the blood thirsty conqueror that many critics contend.<br />
<br />
After a year, the men sent originally to seek help in Hispaniola were able to charter ships on Columbus' credit and organize a rescue in the summer of 1504. A few months later, after some time to recover, Columbus returned to Spain.<br />
<br />
<b>Final Years:</b><br />
<br />
Columbus spent his last years in Spain, suffering deeply from various ailments. He focused more on religion, publishing a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Prophecies">Book of Prophecies</a> in 1505 which discussed his beliefs of events that still needed to occur before the second coming of Jesus Christ. He finally died in 1506.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL8lSx3HeiYNXdYOBuFhyphenhyphen6gvALWZDrOZQ7JhEJkr1R41T8oRO0950szObXWyJ75m-VORDwwx_193kWN3sLd7q-6OiTo-gA7OXblVLjG2kGithtk1BFwhj-BAwirCpFapmbvG_fb5urhz3c/s1600/Columbus-Seville-2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="213" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiL8lSx3HeiYNXdYOBuFhyphenhyphen6gvALWZDrOZQ7JhEJkr1R41T8oRO0950szObXWyJ75m-VORDwwx_193kWN3sLd7q-6OiTo-gA7OXblVLjG2kGithtk1BFwhj-BAwirCpFapmbvG_fb5urhz3c/s320/Columbus-Seville-2.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Columbus Tomb in Seville, Spain</span></td></tr>
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Once could argue that Columbus then had a fifth voyage. In 1537, his bones and those of his son Diego were carried from Spain to Santo Domingo on Hispaniola where they were interred in a new Cathedral. When Spain ceded Hispaniola to France in 1795. Columbus' remains were moved to Havana, Cuba. In 1898, during the Spanish American War, Columbus' remains were returned to Spain to be interred in the Cathedral in Seville. There is some debate about whether the Spanish took the right body in 1795, so it is possible his body remains in the Dominican Republic.<br />
<br />
Spain went to war with the United States, and the remains were sent back to Spain lest they fall to the Americans. Thus ended Columbus' fifth round-trip journey to the New World…or so it seemed.<br />
<br />
Columbus' sons brought several legal actions against the Spanish Crown for the promised power and money that they had agreed to provide his descendants. But the King of Spain simply would not hand over 10% of all revenues from the Western Hemisphere in perpetuity to one family. Litigation over the matter continue for centuries, with a final settlement reached in 1790.<br />
<br />
<b>Conclusions:</b><br />
<br />
Columbus appears to have engaged in behavior considered deplorable by today's standards. His discovery of lands in the Western Hemisphere began several centuries of Spanish domination, enslavement, and cruelty as Spain shipped much of the wealth of the Americas back home. It also destroyed indigenous cultures and attempted to blot out their history. <br />
<br />
Spain did not bring slavery to the Americas. Native tribes already enslaved each other. Indeed, Spanish domination would have been impossible if they had not been able to play warring tribes against one another. Spanish efforts to end human sacrifice and cannibalism are not exactly bad things. It is difficult, however, to justify cruel treatment of natives, as well as the subsequent importation of African slaves for further exploitation. <br />
<br />
Many criticisms of Columbus are based on the work of <a href="http://www.britannica.com/biography/Bartolome-de-Las-Casas">Bartolome de las Casas</a>, a Spanish Priest who advocated for greater native rights. He first arrived in the New World in 1502, several years after Columbus had been ousted as Governor. At first, he participated in the exploitation of the natives but later became a critic of Spanish methods and abuse of the natives. But the observations of de las Casas took place after Columbus was removed. If anything, this shows that abuses remained the same or possibly became worse after Columbus was removed from power.<br />
<br />
Much of the blame leveled at Columbus shortly after his death was an attempt to minimize is accomplishments and maximize his failures. This story line was encouraged by the Spanish Crown as it continued to litigate the Columbus' descendants over their claims to wealth and power resulting from the discovery.<br />
<br />
Columbus' short rule in Hispaniola seems to have set a poor precedent for treatment of the native population. How much of this was initiated by Columbus and how much was simply tolerated as the result of the actions of others and which Columbus could not completely control, seems to be a matter of ongoing debate. It also seems that Columbus was never comfortable as a Governor, but was most comfortable in his role as explorer and seafarer.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
There is no question that Columbus' discovery changed both sides of the globe in a very real and permanent way. It seems unfair, however, to praise or blame one man for the many events, both good and bad, that took place afterward. It was a combination of Columbus' skill as a sea captain, daring as a man, and sheer luck that he discovered the Americas. There is, however, no doubt that he succeeded where many before had failed, and that his discovery changed the course of the world forever.</div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<br /></div>
<div>
<b>Further Reading:</b></div>
<br />
There are a number of good online resources about Columbus. Here are a few that I have found interesting:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://theageofdiscovery.wikispaces.com/Christopher+Columbus">http://theageofdiscovery.wikispaces.com/Christopher+Columbus</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://columbus-day.z12.net/christopher-columbus.php">http://columbus-day.z12.net/christopher-columbus.php</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.christopher-columbus.eu/1492-death.htm">http://www.christopher-columbus.eu/1492-death.htm</a><br />
<br />
<a href="https://www.quora.com/Is-there-a-reasonably-authoritative-account-on-the-reasons-for-Christopher-Columbus-imprisonment-in-Spain">https://www.quora.com/Is-there-a-reasonably-authoritative-account-on-the-reasons-for-Christopher-Columbus-imprisonment-in-Spain</a><br />
<br />
<a href="https://ricochet.com/archives/debunking-lies-about-columbus-the-story-of-francisco-de-bobadilla/">https://ricochet.com/archives/debunking-lies-about-columbus-the-story-of-francisco-de-bobadilla/</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/latinamericatheconquest/p/Columbusfirst.htm">http://latinamericanhistory.about.com/od/latinamericatheconquest/p/Columbusfirst.htm</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/zinncol1.html">http://www.historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/zinncol1.html</a><br />
<br />
<a href="https://www.amherst.edu/system/files/columbus.pdf">https://www.amherst.edu/system/files/columbus.pdf</a> - an interesting theory that Columbus' desire for wealth stemmed from a desire to launch a new crusade to recover the Holy Lands from the Muslims.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/1492/columbus.html">http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/1492/columbus.html</a><br />
<br />
Listen to the <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-11-27T08_04_20-08_00" target="_blank">Podcast</a> of this Episode<br />
<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-21987501112822355852015-10-03T08:27:00.002-04:002016-11-20T15:49:28.322-05:00The First Transgender Governor of New YorkListen to this Post as a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-10-24T16_54_46-07_00" target="_blank">Podcast</a>.<br />
<br />
New York City has a longstanding reputation for being more tolerant of deviation from sexual norms. This tolerance has a long history. Few people remember that Colonial New York was once governed by a man who openly dressed as a woman.<br />
<br />
<b>The Colonial Cross Dressing Governor</b><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
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Edward Hyde, known as Lord Cornbury, and later the Third Earl of Clarendon, served as Governor of the colonies of New York and New Jersey from 1702 until 1708. Testimony from the time indicates that the Cornbury enjoyed going openly in women's clothing, even doing State business dressed as a woman. There is even a portrait allegedly painted of him dressed as a woman. There is, however, debate as to whether the painting is actually the Governor, or whether an apocryphal story became associated with this painting.<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4wW0IPhH1iOix1c62deFyMv060YDOq30RHLPJCMnmXigcok6M-oIl37nqqXaO4E6mKHaUJ2lRyuop4Br1iBgoUAf2qUaFcj30eZEkMo0aWENJnoOvLVSibvSKnAG5B3fWpiGcozamRw85/s1600/Lord_Cornbury.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4wW0IPhH1iOix1c62deFyMv060YDOq30RHLPJCMnmXigcok6M-oIl37nqqXaO4E6mKHaUJ2lRyuop4Br1iBgoUAf2qUaFcj30eZEkMo0aWENJnoOvLVSibvSKnAG5B3fWpiGcozamRw85/s320/Lord_Cornbury.jpg" width="239" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Lord Cornbury <span style="font-size: 12.8px;">(allegedly) </span><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Gov. of NY and NJ </span></div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">From the NY Historical Society </span></div>
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<br />
Whether or not the painting is genuine, there are indisputably several contemporary witnesses who have discussed Lord Cornbury's predilection to go out in public dressed as a woman. Several letters have been discovered which were written during the Governor's tenure and which mention his wardrobe decisions.<br />
<br />
Robert Livingston, the Grandfather of his namesake, a New York Patriot during the American Revolution, was quoted as saying that hundreds saw the Governor daily promenading "in women's cloths." Lewis Morris, who would later serve as Governor of New Jersey himself later in life, and also a Grandfather of a namesake who served in the Continental Congress noted that Lord Conrbury <i>“rarely fails of being dresst in Women’s Cloaths every day, and almost half his time is spent that way, and seldom misses it on sacrement day...and this is not privately, but in the face of the sun and the sight of the town.”</i> Elias Neau, a prominent merchant who also became known as a religious educator for slaves, noted: <i>“My Lord Cornbury has and dos still make use of an unfortunate Custom of dressing himself in Womens Cloaths and of exposing himself in that Garb upon the Ramparts to the view of the public; in that dress he draws a World of Spectators about him and consequently as many Censures.” </i><br />
<br />
Some have dismissed these accounts, arguing that none of the witnesses say they saw these events first hand and all of whom were political enemies of the Governor. That said, it is difficult to believe that such stories would be written as complete fabrications. The danger of being sued for defamation would likely be enough to prevent such false reporting.<br />
<br />
<b>New York Colony in 1702</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
In 1702, New York City was not the thriving metropolis that it is today. It was a bit of a political backwater. The area had been settled by the Dutch nearly 100 years earlier, even before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock. But the population of Dutch, Germans, Swedes, and others never grew terribly large. The area mostly had been a trading outpost to trade for furs with the local natives.<br />
<br />
The Dutch claimed control of the whole area, from Connecticut to Delaware, calling the area "New Netherland." The British never really recognized this claim, but did not do much to dispute it either. Britain remained busy building "New England" to the north and its Virginia Colony to the south.<br />
<br />
In 1664, <a href="http://www.pcworld.com/article/2953724/windows/how-to-play-dvds-in-windows-10-for-free.html">King Charles II</a>, newly back on the thrown after the end of <a href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404900344.html">Oliver Cromwell's interregnum</a>, decided to grant the area controlled by the Dutch to his brother James, the Duke of York. This was part of a larger effort by Britain to take control of Dutch holdings and trade routes worldwide and to establish a friendly government in the Netherlands themselves, ruled by the King's nephew William of Orange.<br />
<br />
British control of New Netherlands was settled by the mid 1670's. The Dutch population in New York was permitted to retain property and continue living in the colony after swearing allegiance to the King. This was not true everywhere. A group of Mennonite colonists in Delaware were massacred, with survivors being sold into slavery in Virginia. New Yorkers were probably further comforted with the Dutch <a href="http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/TheStuarts/MaryIIWilliamIIIandTheActofSettlement/MaryIIWilliamIII.aspx">William of Orange</a> became King of England in 1689, ruling over both Britain and the Netherlands.<br />
<br />
Still New York colony remained a backwater. In the twenty years before Lord Cornwall took control ten different men had served as Governor or acting Governor. The entire colony consisted of less than 20,000 colonists, from a wide range of different countries, and with different languages, traditions, and cultures. New York City was a main port, but mostly served as a haven for pirates and smugglers. Several Governors ended their tenures by being hanged or imprisoned for crimes. The appointed Governor before Lord Cornwall, was a financial backer of the notorious pirate Captain Kidd.<br />
<br />
Not much was expected of Royal Colonial Governors who were appointed by the King. The positions often seemed to be ways to get rid of people in the aristocracy whose presence was no longer desired in Britain.<br />
<br />
<b>Edward Hyde</b><br />
<br />
The honorable Edward Hyde was born into a family of position and wealth. His Grandfather, the 1st Earl of Clarendon was also the Grandfather of the woman who would become <a href="http://www.royal.gov.uk/HistoryoftheMonarchy/KingsandQueensoftheUnitedKingdom/TheStuarts/Anne.aspx">Queen Anne</a>, making her is cousin.<br />
<br />
Despite a privileged birth, Hyde's childhood does not seem to be particularly pleasant. His mother died when he was a toddler. He was raised by servants and eventually a step-mother. His relationship with his father appears to have been rather distant. Hyde graduated from Oxford. His family purchased a Commission for him in the military and he started life as a Lt. Col. in the Royal Regiment of Dragoons, taking on a prominent position working for the husband of his cousin, the future Queen Anne.<br />
<br />
His position also enabled him to win a seat in Parliament, where he served unremarkably for about a decade. When the <a href="http://www.britannica.com/event/Glorious-Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> began in 1688, he took command of a regiment of soldiers under King James, then promptly switched sides and used his command to overthrow the King. He backed the ascension of his Aunt's husband William of Orange as the new King. <br />
<br />
A contemporary described him at the time as "a young man of slender abilities, loose principles, and violent temper," Another account called him "a spendthrift, a grafter, a bigoted oppressor and a drunken vain fool." Still, he backed the winner of the struggle for the crown and was rewarded by the new King.<br />
<br />
It is unclear whether Lord Cornbury as he was now known, exhibited any of his unconventional dressing behavior at this time. If it was, it was certainly kept quiet as was common for many eccentricities of the aristocracy of the time.<br />
<br />
Whatever his true personal sexual preferences, as a member of the nobility he married into another aristocratic family and had five children. On the surface, at least, it seemed he was living a respectable life of minor nobility. <br />
<br />
<b>Governor</b><br />
<br />
In 1701, King William appointed Lord Cornbury Captain-General and Governor-in-Chief of of New York and New Jersey and sent him and his family off to New York. William died the following year, to be succeeded by his daughter and Lord Cornbury's cousin, Queen Anne.<br />
<br />
As Governor, Lord Cornbury seemed to move comfortably into the corrupt criminal environment prevalent in the colony. Whatever attempts were made to hide his moral failing in Britain seemed to fall away in New York. Some accounts rate him as the "worst governor Britain ever imposed on an American colony."<br />
<br />
Apparently the Governor refused to give his wife a clothing allowance. In order to maintain appropriate dress, she apparently "borrowed" expensive dresses and never returned them. The Governor himself apparently openly took bribes. He also raided the colonial treasury, using funds to be spend on colonial defense for personal benefit. He insisted on being addressed as "your high mightiness."<br />
<br />
At this same time, stories of his cross-dressing began to percolate. This has led some historians to dismiss these rumors as simply attempts to further defame the corrupt drunken governor and not out of any basis in reality. Still, the gossip seems plentiful. He was rumored to have attended his wife's funeral in female dress. There is a story Cornbury opened the 1702 New York Assembly wearing a hooped gown and an elaborate headdress and carrying a fan, similar the style of of Queen Anne. When his choice of clothing was questioned, he replied, <i>"You are all very stupid people not to see the propriety of it all. In this place and occasion, I represent a woman [The Queen], and in all respects I ought to represent her as faithfully as I can." </i>Another story says that while dressed as a woman, he had a habit of lurking <i>"behind trees to pounce, shrieking with laughter, on his victims."</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
Accounts of his behavior could no longer be ignored in Britain. In 1708, Queen Anne recalled him as Governor and he was immediately thrown into jail for his debts. With the passing of his father the following year, Lord Cornbury inherited the title of Third Earl of Clarendon. As a peer, he could no longer be imprisoned and was released. He returned to England. His position entitled him to sit in the House of Lords, which he apparently did.<br />
<br />
<b>Final Years</b><br />
<br />
Despite his behavior, the Crown still conferred favor on him. He was appointed a Privy Councillor in 1711. Several years later, in 1714, he was sent to Hanover Germany as Envoy Extraordinary. He seemed to live the rest of his life in reasonable respectability. <br />
<br />
His family life seems to have remained strained and distant as well. His wife died while he was Governor, and he never remarried. Only one of his four daughters lived to adulthood. She seemed to have married well and maintained a distance from her father. Lord Cornbury never seems to mention his son in any of his personal papers. His son was apparently a drunkard, which contributed to his 1713 death in his early twenties.<br />
<br />
Edward Hyde, third Earl of Clarendon died himself in 1723. He had been forced to sell his family land in 1719 to pay off his many debts. He was buried with honor in Westminster. Without a male heir, his title passed to his cousin Henry Hyde.<br />
<br />
Lady Theresa Lister seems to have summed up his life best. "<i>Edward Hyde, third Earl of Clarendon, presents one of those melancholy instances which too often occur amongst the descendants of distinguished men, where the name, the honours, the titles are reproduced, but unsupported and ungraced by any one of those qualities or virtues which won distinction for their ancestor. His conduct through life was a blot upon his name, and brought down upon him the scorn and reproach of two hemispheres."</i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<b>Transgender?</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Of course the term "transgender" did not exist in 1700. It is unclear, even if the stories are true, whether Edward Hyde really wanted to be a woman, or simply enjoyed being a cross-dresser. He certainly had a normal marriage to a woman and had children with her. But such was demanded of any aristocracy at the time. Marriages were often not about love but of maintaining family position and rank. There is no actual evidence that he ever had a homosexual relationship or attempted to live as a woman beyond dressing as one. If he ever did have such a relationship, it most certainly would have been very well hidden. Of course, any medical procedures that would allow bodily changes to another sex were still centuries away and not an option. Similarly, society at that time simply would not permit him to live openly as a woman, even if he desired to do so. So whether Hyde was truly transgender will likely never be resolved based on the historical record.<br />
<i><br /></i>
<b>Further Reading:</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
There are several good online resources about Lord Conrbury:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.berkshirehistory.com/bios/ehyde_3eofc.html">http://www.berkshirehistory.com/bios/ehyde_3eofc.html</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://cuhistory3057.tripod.com/hyde/id1.html">http://cuhistory3057.tripod.com/hyde/id1.html</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://outhistory.org/exhibits/show/the-age-of-sodomitical-sin/1700s/edward-hyde-lord-cornbury-1661">http://outhistory.org/exhibits/show/the-age-of-sodomitical-sin/1700s/edward-hyde-lord-cornbury-1661</a><br />
<br />
There are also several books on the topic.<br />
<br />
<i>The Lord Cornbury Scandal: The Politics of Reputation in British America</i> by Patricia U. Bonomi (2000) - this book goes to great efforts to debunk the rumors of cross-dressing.<br />
<br />
<i>Fall from Grace: Sex, Scandal and Corruption in American Politics from 1702 to Present</i> by Shelley Ross (1988).<br />
<br />
Listen to this Post as a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-10-24T16_54_46-07_00" target="_blank">Podcast</a>.<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-26100800582131377372015-09-19T07:19:00.000-04:002017-03-04T07:11:00.313-05:00His Brother Joe<b>His Brother Joe</b><br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-10-24T16_54_46-07_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
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</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Joseph Napoleon</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
A respectable career as a diplomat, soldier, King of Naples, and later as King of Spain, would likely be enough for any man to be remembered in his own right. But that is only the case if you don't have a little brother who really outshines you. Such was the fate of Joseph Bonaparte. He would always be overshadowed by his kid brother Napoleon.<br />
<br />
I didn't know much of anything about Joseph Bonaparte until one day walking down the street in Philadelphia, I passed an unassuming townhouse. Out front, there was a historic marker that read:<br />
<i><br /></i>
<i>"Joseph Bonaparte (1768-1844). The elder brother of Napoleon and King of Naples and Spain lived here, 1815-16. The House was built about 1813. During Joseph's occupancy here, this was a place for Bonapartist refugees & other French Nationals." </i><br />
<br />
I was curious and intrigued to find out how the brother of the most pivotal figure of the 19th Century ended up living as an "average Joe" in Center City. That started me on this look into the man the world mostly remembers as Napoleon's brother.<br />
<br />
<b>Early Years:</b><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Joseph and Napoleon</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
in Corsica</div>
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The Bonaparte family descended from minor Italian nobility, once holding a position in an small town near Florence. They had to flee to Corsica after backing the wrong side one of many local battles for power. The family lived for many generations on the island of Corsica. That is where Giuseppe was born on January 7, 1768. At the time, Corsica was under the control of Genoa (what is today part of Italy). Months after his birth, France purchased Corsica from Genoa, meaning that Napoleon and the other and their nine other brothers and sisters were native born French. As French became the language of choice, Giuseppe began to use the French version of his name: Joseph.<br />
<br />
In the 1790's, Corsica sought to break away from France, which was then stuck in the terror and chaos of the Revolution. Independence leader Pasquale Paoli allied himself with the British and briefly took control of the island. <br />
<br />
Joseph and Napoleon had been friends with Paoli at one time, but were still serving in the French Army and considered themselves French. The Bonaparte family backed the French in this dispute and fled to mainland France when the other side took power.<br />
<br />
<b>Military and Diplomatic Career</b><br />
<br />
Joseph, a dedicated advocate of the French republican cause, served along with his brother in the French army. In 1796 he and Napoleon fought together in the early part of his Italian campaign. Joseph then worked on the diplomatic negotiations to end hostilities. Later, Joseph joined the French expedition to recover control of Corsica and assisted in the reorganization of the island.<br />
<br />
The <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Directory">French Directory</a> in control of France at the time, took notice of Joseph's abilities and gave him more diplomatic posts. He was appointed to the court of Parma in 1797 and then to Rome. Later that year, he returned to Paris and became one of the representatives for Corsica in the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Five_Hundred">Council of Five Hundred</a>, the new French legislature.<br />
<br />
The coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799) finally brought his brother Napoleon to power. Never one to shy away from nepotism, Napoleon appointed Joseph to a number of important posts. He served as a member of the Council of State and of the Corps Législatif. In 1800, Joseph successfully negotiated a treaty with the United States, putting and end to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-War">Quasi-War</a> that had erupted under the old Directory government. He also negotiated the 1801 treaty with Austria and represented France in discussions with the British envoy, Lord Cornwallis, that led to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Amiens">Treaty of Amiens</a> in 1802.<br />
<br />
As Joseph and Napoleon pursued their careers in the military and politics they remained very close. There is a regular stream of letters back and forth between the brothers, often on a daily basis. While they had their differences of opinion, they maintained a deep and unbreakable family bond and always held a brotherly affection for one another.<br />
<br />
Napoleon took the role of "First Consul" of France in 1802. After Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor, tensions rose between the brothers. Joseph thought he should be Napoleon's heir, while Napoleon chose their nephew. But they continued to work together well as Joseph never lost the trust of his brother. In 1805, Joseph essentially ran the government in Paris while brother Napoleon was fighting wars in Germany. <br />
<br />
<b>King of Naples</b><br />
<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Joseph in Naples</div>
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The following year, at Napoleon's request, Joseph led troops of his own to expel the King of Naples, which had supported the Alliance against Napoleon. Russian and English troops, then part of the alliance, defended Naples. Following Napoleon's victory at <a href="http://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Austerlitz">Austerlitz</a>, allied support was weak and demoralized. The Russians and British retreated before Joseph's army of 40,000 and victory was quick. With the kingdom secured, Napoleon appointed his brother the new King of Naples. Sometimes you will see the title as "King of the Two Sicilies" This was the title of the ruler of Naples and Sicily. The British, however, made sure that Joseph never took control of the island of Sicily.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
King Ferdinand IV and Queen</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Carolina of Naples</div>
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Despite being imposed by a foreign power, King Joseph seemed to enjoy popularity among the people of Naples. The prior ruler <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_the_Two_Sicilies">King Ferdinand IV</a> had been a despot, who ran the government based on corruption and cruelty. Most of the people lived as serfs, with virtually no legal rights nor the ability to live beyond bare subsistence. Queen <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Carolina_of_Austria">Maria Carolina</a>, originally from Austria, had a taste for luxury akin to her sister, former Queen of France <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a>. She used the national treasury as her personal bank account, supporting a small group of courtiers. Few were sorry to see them go when they fled to Sicily, protected by the British Navy.<br />
<br />
King Joseph was quick to reform the government and its laws. He abolished feudal laws that kept the peasants in a state of virtual slavery. He reformed the monastic orders, shutting down most cloistered monasteries and ensuring priests served the people in parishes. A modern judiciary began trying and releasing many thousands of prisoners who had been held, sometimes for decades, without trial. Those remaining in prison suffered less, as prison conditions improved Joseph's military crushed rampant piracy and banditry. He instituted the region's first free public school system for children and restored funding for the University of Naples. A fairer and more systematized tax system replaced the old corrupt one that benefited only a few nobility. Land reform, took land primarily from the Church as well as some nobles, and made it available to small farmers. Public works projects put people to work and rebuilt infrastructure. Generally, the reforms seemed to be quite popular. <br />
<br />
This is not to say everything was easy. Powerful nobility who had benefited under the old regime resisted the reforms. The British naval fleet continued to harass the kingdom along its shores. Land reform changes that had impacted holdings of the Catholic Church created a conflict that raised difficulties for the new king. Resistance and rebellion remained in some regions. <br />
<br />
Napoleon thought that his brother was not tough enough with those who resisted his reign. Take a look at these thoughts from a letter to Joseph:<br />
<br />
<i>"Put it in your calculations, that sooner or later you will have an insurrection. It is an event which always happens in a conquered country. You can never sustain yourself by opinion in such a city as Naples. Be sure that you will have a riot or an insurrection. I earnestly desire to aid you by my experience in such matters. Shoot pitilessly the lazzaroni who plunge the dagger. I am greatly surprised that you do not shoot the spies of the King of Naples. Your administration is too feeble. I cannot conceive why you do not execute the laws. Every spy should be shot. Every lazzaroni who plies the dagger should be shot. You attach too much importance to a populace whom two or three battalions and a few pieces of artillery will bring to reason. They will never be submissive until they rise in insurrection, and you make a severe example. The villages which revolt should be surrendered to pillage. It is not only the right of war, but policy requires it. Your government, my brother, is not sufficiently vigorous. You fear too much to indispose people. You are too amiable, and have too much confidence in the Neapolitans. This system of mildness will not avail you. Be sure of that. I truly desire that the mob of Naples should revolt. Until you make an example, you will not be master. With every conquered people a revolt is a necessity. I should regard a revolt in Naples as the father of a family regards the small-pox for his children. Provided it does not weaken the invalid too much, it is a salutary crisis."</i><br />
<br />
Joseph had used military force and was far from a pushover. Napoleon, however, was clearly an advocate for military force, rather than diplomacy and political popularity. Joseph was more nuanced in his rule than Napoleon would have liked. When a rebellion in Calabria broke out, Napoleon argued for a harsh and unforgiving crack down:<br />
<br />
<i>"The fate of your reign depends upon your conduct when you return to Calabria. There must be no forgiveness. Shoot at least six hundred rebels. They have murdered more soldiers than that. Burn the houses of thirty of the principal persons in the villages, and distribute their property among the soldiers. Take away all arms from the inhabitants, and give up to pillage five or six of the large villages. When Placenza rebelled, I ordered Junot to burn two villages and shoot the chiefs, among whom were six priests. It will be some time before they rebel again."</i><br />
<br />
Joseph, unlike his brother, focused more on developing political support and less on using the military as an instrument of terror to compel submission. In a letter to his wife Joseph, discussed his desire to make life better for the people of Naples.<br />
<br />
<i>"I work for the kingdom of Naples with the same good faith and the same self-renunciation with which, at the death of my father, I labored for his young family, whom I never ceased to bear in my heart, and all sacrifices were for me enjoyments. I say this with pride, because it is the truth. I live only to be just; and justice requires that I should render this people as happy as the scourge of war will render possible. I venture to say, notwithstanding their situation, that the people of Naples are perhaps more happy than any other people."</i><br />
<br />
By most accounts, King Joseph's efforts were successful. Internal rebellions largely withered away. He enjoyed popular support among the people. Peace and prosperity grew throughout the Kingdom. While Joseph seemed happy to spend the rest of his life ruling Naples, Napoleon was not one to let success lead to complacency. In 1808, Napoleon gave the Kingdom of Naples to one of his top military offices <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim_Murat">Joachim Murat</a> (who was married to their sister Caroline) and sent Joseph to Spain.<br />
<br />
<b>King of Spain</b><br />
<br />
Spain had for many years tried to play a double game against the warring French and British. Not really able to take on either country militarily, Spain feared both French invasion, as well as the British Navy's ability to cut off Spain from her colonies in Latin America. As a result, Spain was always trying to maintain friendly relations, or at least avoid the wrath, of both countries.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">King Charles IV and his family</span></td></tr>
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<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
Amidst all of this diplomatic posturing, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_IV_of_Spain">King Charles IV</a> of Spain, his wife <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Luisa_of_Parma">Queen Luisa Maria</a>, and his son <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_VII_of_Spain">Prince Ferdinand</a> were fighting for control of the country. This weak and divided rule made Spain a security risk for France. In 1808, King Charles and Prince Ferdinand asked Napoleon to arbitrate their leadership dispute. Napoleon called both men to Bayonne France. There, he announced his solution. King Charles and Prince Ferdinand would both abdicate and go to prison, actually house arrest in a very nice French Chateau. Joseph would become the new King of Spain.<br />
<br />
By most accounts, Joseph was happy in Naples and did not want to go to Spain, but his brother was not known for taking "no" for an answer. So, Joseph headed off to Spain. He apparently made an effort to ingratiate himself, trying to learn Spanish, disciplining French troops over abuses, professing devotion to the Catholic Church. He even attended bullfights.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhun5oMHKO56FUOYO-sii5I2IcpE-xYa0CTknQBfddIaFpr7OfSk1IQvZjaXY1D_yMF-o352_wOZM0t2XggrrFwPNBpbJpUcl_LVOy_1yWzYj8m7X5G1lVbMFLahavoBepltYbHgxiWrXLq/s1600/Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhun5oMHKO56FUOYO-sii5I2IcpE-xYa0CTknQBfddIaFpr7OfSk1IQvZjaXY1D_yMF-o352_wOZM0t2XggrrFwPNBpbJpUcl_LVOy_1yWzYj8m7X5G1lVbMFLahavoBepltYbHgxiWrXLq/s200/Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg" width="135" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">King Joseph of Spain 1808</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
King Joseph also began implementing modern reforms. He ended the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> that had terrorized the country for centuries. He began the process of implementing a new Constitution and an elected legislature.<br />
<br />
The Spanish, however were not as accepting of this imposed monarch. It was not that he was a foreigner. Foreign Kings were not unusual in Europe. Ironically, King Charles had been born and raised in Naples before ascending the throne. His wife was also from Parma in modern Italy. Strong opposition of the Catholic Church, and support for rebels provided by Britain fomented full scale rebellion against the new King.<br />
<br />
After only three months, rebels drove Joseph out of the capital. Joseph wanted to return to Naples, but his brother would not allow it. The French army used brute force to reinstate King Joseph. Napoleon personally led an army of 80,000 to put down the rebellion and attack British forces in the country as well. Napoleon's military might, not Joseph's political skills, imposed control. A guerrilla resistance effectively prevented the French from exerting any real control over the countryside. Joseph tried to abdicate on multiple occasions, only to have his brother refuse or ignore his abdication.<br />
<br />
Finally, in 1813, as the French Empire began to feel the strain from Napoleon's<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia"> invasion of Russia</a>, Joseph left Spain and returned to Paris. He served as a General in the final months of Napoleon's reign, in charge of the defense of Paris against allied attack. He fled the city only hours before Russian Cossacks ravaged the city, taking Napoleon's wife and child to safety.<br />
<br />
Once Napoleon was <a href="http://www.sparknotes.com/biography/napoleon/section9.rhtml">exiled to Elba</a> in 1814, Joseph retired with his family to an estate in Northern France on the banks of <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Geneva">Lake Geneva</a>. He lived their quietly with his family. When Napoleon escaped exile and returned to power, Joseph joined him an Paris and assisted with his new reign as emperor. <br />
<br />
<b>To America:</b><br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
This second short reign of 100 days ended just after Napoleon's defeat at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Waterloo">Waterloo</a>, The two brothers discussed an escape to America. At one point, Joseph offered to pose as Napoleon as he made his escape, but Napoleon decided to accept his fate and surrender to the Allies. He was soon exiled to British controlled <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Helena">St. Helena</a>, where he would spend the rest of his life.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhv7NZG5fNI6m1eAjy-stQ3L0QuAmDXs7qpNCqWSN3eZWYtGuE5_GsQ_zQ56X5NKcmh4y2ZHYk-SnlAVa51sNmB8AhnYgVesaNewMjx7RHuSUeBHjln4x34bV3LpKujXorkI6W9YyZuVn0/s1600/20150909_111357.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjhv7NZG5fNI6m1eAjy-stQ3L0QuAmDXs7qpNCqWSN3eZWYtGuE5_GsQ_zQ56X5NKcmh4y2ZHYk-SnlAVa51sNmB8AhnYgVesaNewMjx7RHuSUeBHjln4x34bV3LpKujXorkI6W9YyZuVn0/s1600/20150909_111357.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Photo of Joseph's</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
townhouse in. Phila.</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
Joseph was a wanted man as well. He boarded a ship under a false name. Despite several British inspections, authorities did not recognize him. He arrived in New York City. After a short stay, he rented a townhouse in Philadelphia (260 South Ninth Street).<br />
<br />
Joseph remained popular in the US, which was at war with Britain at the time. His home remained a popular stop for both American leaders as well as French expatriates. The Allies in Europe had confiscated all the property held by the Bonaparte family and banished them from ever returning. Joseph though, had the foresight to hide and smuggle several million dollars worth of jewels off the continent. Apparently, when he abdicated the Spanish Crown, he decided to keep the Spanish crown jewels as a "lovely parting gift." allowing his family to live in style. Well his daughters anyway - Joseph's wife Julie never came to America. She remained in Europe.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQ1Jgup0iWb-y5wQ5HMSpppzSf_CcCXmNJeCI3bq91USO0algAQFB4MkagK2eOt-fkvTBCnl6gasBUG3wV71KLtGF7vVkBogDh3YrF-6V8__Fu4GXYwQNg2id14YOWGSilo4QNW2j0sxT5/s1600/Point_Breeze.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="123" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQ1Jgup0iWb-y5wQ5HMSpppzSf_CcCXmNJeCI3bq91USO0algAQFB4MkagK2eOt-fkvTBCnl6gasBUG3wV71KLtGF7vVkBogDh3YrF-6V8__Fu4GXYwQNg2id14YOWGSilo4QNW2j0sxT5/s200/Point_Breeze.jpg" width="200" /></a>After a year, Joseph purchased a large estate in Bordentown, NJ. He named it <a href="http://tdclassicist.blogspot.com/2012/04/point-breeze-joseph-bonapartes-estate.html">Point Breeze</a>, but locals referred to it as the Bonaparte House. The estate eventually included over 1800 acres of land along the Delaware river. He built a large mansion, which included an art gallery full of paintings by artists such as Murillo, Rubens, Canaletto, Velasquez, and Da Vinci, as well as Gerard and Vernet, It also contained a large state dining room for entertaining. The estate was finer that anything most Americans had ever seen. At a time before America produced industrialist multimillionaires, a home of such elegance and finery a great rarity in the new nation. Many claimed it was the finest house in America.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqXWDAJITj01ul5ZXG2HX8M_hcWQHO1wVrSglF-tcKWTJqQQ2sbb9-InN4ztCSYoH5SCcA8311IBErmILl2lEJwxuEpc2Rdqo7Mgdww-CIWujpy5ugahuzEt3ibMpjreDBP1plvheA7x47/s1600/BonaparteViewFromBordentownHillontheDelCBLawrenceNJHS.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqXWDAJITj01ul5ZXG2HX8M_hcWQHO1wVrSglF-tcKWTJqQQ2sbb9-InN4ztCSYoH5SCcA8311IBErmILl2lEJwxuEpc2Rdqo7Mgdww-CIWujpy5ugahuzEt3ibMpjreDBP1plvheA7x47/s1600/BonaparteViewFromBordentownHillontheDelCBLawrenceNJHS.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Napoleon's Point Breeze Estate in New Jersey</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
Joseph built a second house on the estate for his daughter<span style="background-color: white;"> </span><span style="background-color: white;">Zenaide and her husband (and cousin)<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Lucien_Bonaparte"> Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte</a>. His unmarried daughter Charlotte also lived with him. His wife remained in Europe and never came to America. Joseph took several mistresses while living in America, one of whom gave him two more daughters. In 1820, the house burned down and was rebuilt. Joseph also purchased a large tract of "wilderness" property in upstate New York, of over 24,000 acres. Joseph may have lost all political power, but he could enjoy the good life in comfort and extravagance.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="background-color: white;">Joseph could have remained a force in politics had he so desired. In 1817, a faction of Mexicans proposed to make Joseph King of Mexico. This was not a crazy as it might sound today. A generation later, the French </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian_I_of_Mexico">King Maximilian I</a><span style="background-color: white;"> would rule Mexico briefly, under the protection of Joseph's nephew, </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_III">Napoleon III</a><span style="background-color: white;">. Joseph, however, decided two Kingdoms were enough for one lifetime and declined.</span><br />
<br />
Joseph was generous to many French expatriates now living in near poverty in America. The Marquis de Lafayette visited Joseph at his estate during his famous <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visit_of_the_Marquis_de_Lafayette_to_the_United_States">1824 American tour</a>. Joseph also attempted to use his wealth to provide some comforts to his brother Napoleon, but was prevented from doing so by his captors. His brother died impoverished on St. Helena in 1821.<br />
<br />
<b>Final Years:</b><br />
<br />
After nearly two decades in the US, Joseph attempted to return to Europe in 1832. His nephew, Napoleon's son Napoleon II, was near death and he hoped to obtain permission to visit him and other family members. He made it as far as London, but the British still feared the effect of his return to the continent and prevented him from proceeding. As a relative of Napoleon he was also formally banished from France upon pain of death. Joseph remained in London for about five years before returning to his estate in New Jersey.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
Finally in 1839, he was able to return to the continent. He settled in Genoa, and then Florence, the traditional home of his ancestors and reconciled with his wife. He spent much of his final years living quietly and giving away art and other possessions. He died in Florence in 1844.<br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwVB-Y5KCQEK61GQNzZwl4_SWeAs1Pnt2P8KOR5Gwvq9Y1aqs3IHE8S8ul6gKrDnrNuNyyibFbqbKKXip5HVXa36ex5zZgMwivk-dvB2jvU6QPDdM-_SvOcYVQtpR-s5dSy1ELKoHd5Wjv/s1600/Tomb_of_Joseph_Bonaparte%252C_Paris_21_April_2010.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="133" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwVB-Y5KCQEK61GQNzZwl4_SWeAs1Pnt2P8KOR5Gwvq9Y1aqs3IHE8S8ul6gKrDnrNuNyyibFbqbKKXip5HVXa36ex5zZgMwivk-dvB2jvU6QPDdM-_SvOcYVQtpR-s5dSy1ELKoHd5Wjv/s200/Tomb_of_Joseph_Bonaparte%252C_Paris_21_April_2010.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Tomb of Joseph Napoleon</div>
<div style="font-size: 12.8px;">
Les Invalides, Paris</div>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
His death, however, was not the end of the story. His mansion in NJ was eventually sold to the British Consul in the US. The British officer completely razed this beautiful structure and replaced it with a new and much less grand house. He sold off much of the land piecemeal. The British, it seems, really did not want there to be any legacy of the Bonapartes anywhere. In 1861, Joseph's body was returned to Paris at the request of his nephew Napoleon III, then in power. The French, it seems, still valued his legacy.<br />
<br />
Listen to a <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-10-24T16_54_46-07_00" target="_blank">podcast</a> of this episode.<br />
<br />
<b>Further Reading:</b><br />
<br />
For a general outline of Napoleon and his era, you may find this site helpful:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.napoleon.org/en/History/index.asp">http://www.napoleon.org/en/History/index.asp</a><br />
<br />
Here is a New York Times Article on the archaeological excavation of Joseph's NJ estate:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/26/nyregion/new-jersey/26bonapartenj.html">http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/26/nyregion/new-jersey/26bonapartenj.html</a><br />
<br />
An interesting anecdote about Joseph Bonaparte's encounter with the New Jersey Devil:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://americanfolklore.net/folklore/2010/07/joseph_bonaparte_and_the_jerse.html">http://americanfolklore.net/folklore/2010/07/joseph_bonaparte_and_the_jerse.html</a><br />
<br />
I found a few other interesting online sites devoted to Joseph Bonaparte specifically:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://shannonselin.com/2014/07/joseph-bonaparte-king-spain-new-jersey/">http://shannonselin.com/2014/07/joseph-bonaparte-king-spain-new-jersey</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.biography.com/people/joseph-bonaparte-9218630#king-of-naples-and-spain">http://www.biography.com/people/joseph-bonaparte-9218630#king-of-naples-and-spain</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://flatrock.org.nz/topics/new_jersey/new_jerseys_ex_king.htm">http://flatrock.org.nz/topics/new_jersey/new_jerseys_ex_king.htm</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.cairn.info/revue-napoleonica-la-revue-2010-2-page-30.htm">http://www.cairn.info/revue-napoleonica-la-revue-2010-2-page-30.htm</a><br />
<br />
<a href="https://www.awesomestories.com/asset/view/Joseph-Bonaparte-and-the-Crown-Jewels">https://www.awesomestories.com/asset/view/Joseph-Bonaparte-and-the-Crown-Jewels</a><br />
<br />
<br />
There is a good book on Joseph Bonaparte in the public domain, and available as a free download:<br />
<br />
<a href="https://archive.org/details/historyofjosephb02abbo">History of Joseph Bonaparte, king of Naples and of Italy</a> by John Abbott (1897). This book is also available as a <a href="http://www.amazon.com/Joseph-Bonaparte-Makers-History-Stevens-ebook/dp/B004WPOX84">free Kindle download</a>.<br />
<br />
Also available as a free ebook is a book of correspondence between Napoleon and Joseph (translated into English: <a href="https://archive.org/details/confidentialcorr02naporich">The confidential correspondence of Napoleon Bonaparte with his brother Joseph</a> (by Joseph and Napoleon Bonaparte) (English publication, 1895).<br />
<br />
If you want to learn more about Joseph Napoleon's life in America, I recommend <a href="http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/14159.html">The Man Who Had Been King The American Exile of Napoleon's Brother Joseph</a> by Patricia Tyson Stroud (2005).<br />
<br />
A more general read is <a href="http://www.amazon.com/The-gentle-Bonaparte-biography-Napoleons/dp/B0006BU486">The Gentle Bonaparte;: A biography of Joseph, Napoleon's elder brother</a> by Owen Connelly (1968).<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-75544672608273193252015-09-05T06:24:00.000-04:002020-02-07T06:56:37.255-05:00Philadelphia Bible Riots of 1844<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: large; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Philadelphia Bible Riots of 1844</span></div>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Listen to this Post as a Podcast: <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-10-09T08_21_29-07_00" target="_blank">Part 1</a> & <a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-10-16T12_50_43-07_00" target="_blank">Part 2</a>.</b></span></span><br />
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Introduction</span></div>
<b id="docs-internal-guid-e44d4aa0-56fe-9932-60b2-3afe45e7be88" style="font-weight: normal;"></b><b id="docs-internal-guid-e44d4aa0-674d-ee00-331f-30f5f015568b" style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In the spring and summer of 1844, Philadelphia was divided into two hostile camps. The American born Protestant majority declared war on the Irish Catholic minority. Dozens were killed, hundreds were left homeless and property destroyed. The events are often called the Nativist</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Riots, the Anti-Catholic Riots, or probably most commonly the Bible Riots of 1844. </span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4CRTElzdZkN6A6lQ8UXABvgsfuClLW_O16Vl-fbNP3xykldBCVUDj9wg9sBvRrN5uzmWT5P8Qt16ZvDGponIuPi0W6th8qtYkjkfLKFoS5nFvPhdzuI6g9n6WeljbI2m0W_6yq4-AkU1h/s1600/Bible_Riots.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4CRTElzdZkN6A6lQ8UXABvgsfuClLW_O16Vl-fbNP3xykldBCVUDj9wg9sBvRrN5uzmWT5P8Qt16ZvDGponIuPi0W6th8qtYkjkfLKFoS5nFvPhdzuI6g9n6WeljbI2m0W_6yq4-AkU1h/s1600/Bible_Riots.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b style="background-color: white; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: x-small; text-align: left;">Riot in Philadelphia. July 7 1844. </b><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , "clean" , sans-serif; font-size: xx-small; text-align: left;">From Villanova University’s Digital Library: </span><br />
<span style="background-color: white; font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , "clean" , sans-serif; font-size: xx-small; text-align: left;">Pennsylvania Collection.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></blockquote>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The Background</span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 1.8; white-space: pre-wrap;">From its very beginning, Pennsylvania earned a reputation for being one of the most open and accepting colonies in North America. Unlike other colonies, it did not bar Catholic immigration nor diminish the political rights of its Catholic population. William Penn’s charter guaranteed religious toleration. Pennsylvania's first Catholic Church, </span><a href="http://oldstjoseph.org/blog/about-osj/history/18th-century/" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 1.8; white-space: pre-wrap;">St. Joseph’s</a><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 1.8; white-space: pre-wrap;"> in Willing Ally, was founded in 1733. At the time, it was the only place in the British Empire that permitted the open celebration of the Catholic Mass. </span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Catholic population remained relatively small. During the American Revolution the estimated population of Catholics in Philadelphia was only 1200-1500 people. Rome did not appoint a Bishop in Philadelphia until 1808. In the early 1800’s, immigration began to increase the Catholic population in and around Philadelphia</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">By the time of the Riots, estimates put the Catholic population at roughly 10% of the City's population of around 100,000. The bulk of these new immigrants were Irish Catholics, although there was a sizable German Catholic population as well. Philadelphia natives including many Protestants of Irish descent, did not always welcome the new immigrants.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Some of the sentiment was the age-old fear of immigrants taking jobs away from natives, lowering wages, and increasing demands on city services. Many Protestants of the time also feared a “Papist Conspiracy” where Catholics, bound to blind obedience to the Pope, would reach sufficient numbers to take over the country, forcing Catholicism on everyone. Many remembered the centuries of wars in Europe between Catholics and Protestants. They feared those same divisions could lead to violence in America as well.</span></div>
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In November 1842, 100 Clergyman formed the American Protestant Association in Philadelphia. It’s Constitution began with an expression of the anti-Catholicism of the day: </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">"Whereas we believe the system of Popery to be, in its principles and tendency, subversive of civil and religious liberty, and destructive to the spiritual welfare of men, we unite for the purpose of defending our Protestant interests against the great exertions now making to propagate that system in the United States..."</span></div>
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Philadelphia had already been the setting of anti-Catholic violence. In 1831, 400 Irish Protestants in the city paraded in celebration of the anniversary of the </span><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/events/battle_of_the_boyne" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Battle of the Boyne</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, the battle in 1690 when King William defeated King James II in Ireland to secure English Protestant control of the island, with a still largely Catholic population. Irish Catholics observing this clearly provocative parade marching past a Catholic Church attacked the men, leading to a massive riot in the streets. Dozens were seriously injured. Authorities were able to suppress the fighting, and most of the ringleaders were arrested and convicted. The City returned to relative calm, but sectarian hostility remained below the surface.</span></div>
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Philadelphia’s Irish Catholic population was concentrated in the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington,_Philadelphia" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Kensington District</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. The primary trade was weaving, which employed much of the population. Over the years, the Irish had staged a series of labor strikes to protest cuts in pay. Many of these strikes had led to violence against factories, scab workers, and even law enforcement officers. All of this further divided the neighborhood residents from the rest of the city.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Cause of the Riots</span></div>
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Despite its tradition of religious tolerance, Protestant Christianity dominated the State of Pennsylvania. The Protestant </span><a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/versions/King-James-Version-KJV-Bible/" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">King James Bible</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> was required reading in all public schools. Students were also required to learn Protestant hymns. Some instructional documents used in the schools portrayed the Pope as the Anti-Christ.</span></div>
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Catholic Church in the English speaking world used a different translation of the Bible, the </span><a href="https://www.biblegateway.com/versions/Douay-Rheims-1899-American-Edition-DRA-Bible/" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Douay-Rheims Bible</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Catholic Bibles include several Old Testament Books rejected by most Protestants. This preferred Bible also includes notes and commentary about the Bible verses themselves. </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1kaFcMXg8xzdIvdnsFibeXvQWzUxDPCiX6eED-xRZOMrJtyD8p6mjczVOlrutozPvHq2spilHTbcwzxYsZ8ZSHAiJkKL53I59fKzAgnBD_hOueGP3SEa3UiC_gihTtEeXe2f-zWIuEMqT/s1600/Francis+Patrick+Kenrick.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1kaFcMXg8xzdIvdnsFibeXvQWzUxDPCiX6eED-xRZOMrJtyD8p6mjczVOlrutozPvHq2spilHTbcwzxYsZ8ZSHAiJkKL53I59fKzAgnBD_hOueGP3SEa3UiC_gihTtEeXe2f-zWIuEMqT/s200/Francis+Patrick+Kenrick.jpg" width="133" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Bishop Patrick Francis Kenrick</span></td></tr>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">At this time, the First Amendment prohibitions on government establishment of religion, only applied to the federal government, not the States. State and local governments were free to compel as much religion as they liked.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"></b><br />
<b style="font-weight: normal;"></b>
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Catholics objected to the exclusive use of the Protestant Bible in the schools and the clear Protestant bias in the religious curriculum. Philadelphia </span><a href="http://www.archbalt.org/about-us/the-archdiocese/our-history/people/kenrick.cfm" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Bishop Patrick Francis Kenrick</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, for several years had been advocating a change that would allow options for Catholic students to read from the Douay Bible and learn Catholic religious studies rather than Protestant ones. </span></div>
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<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In February 1844, Hugh Clark, a Catholic and a Director of Schools in Kensington responded to complaints by one teacher who objected to teaching Protestant curriculum to her Catholic students. Catholic students had been given the right to leave the classroom during the teaching. Since almost all the students in this Kensington school were Catholic, almost everyone left the room. The teacher found this process to be highly disruptive. Clark authorized the teacher to suspend Bible reading in school until the board could develop a policy acceptable to both Catholics and Protestants.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Many Philadelphia Protestants saw this act as a provocation. New foreign immigrants had openly disobeyed State law, and were trying to remove the Bible from the schools. Local papers and meetings misrepresented the incidence, telling their audiences that Catholic public school administrators were forcing teachers to stop all prayers and Bible readings in the schools.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6667px; vertical-align: baseline;">A relatively new political party, </span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 17.6px;">the anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic “American Republican Party” (which was an early prototype of the “Know-Nothing” Party of the 1850’s) staged </span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 1.8;">number of public rallies around the city in favor of continued mandatory teaching of the Protestant Bible in public schools, and limiting the right to vote for immigrants The party's platform saw growing political support in much of the City.</span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEguPhyphenhyphenoUrO2vWfkgnqOSREVLMdJR7KkpZKgWI4vnqsNBz2r3V5QNLLYctTUGos9UJdlXR_dN9n1KcKwgY22DTV5P0tsv_oi5lbfCIHShXTpkaGDav7f5PCAvFvY261Y4CiO0cqlXWsShuqO/s1600/Bible+Riot+Map.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEguPhyphenhyphenoUrO2vWfkgnqOSREVLMdJR7KkpZKgWI4vnqsNBz2r3V5QNLLYctTUGos9UJdlXR_dN9n1KcKwgY22DTV5P0tsv_oi5lbfCIHShXTpkaGDav7f5PCAvFvY261Y4CiO0cqlXWsShuqO/s640/Bible+Riot+Map.jpg" width="506" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">A Map showing the locations of Rioting in and around Philadelphia.</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6667px; font-weight: 700; white-space: pre-wrap;">The First Act: Friday May 3, 1844</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">On May 3, American Republicans staged a “Save the Bible” rally in Kensington. Unlike earlier rallies, this one was rather small, only a few hundred people. What made it significant was that it was held in the heart of the Irish-Catholic community. Those sponsoring the rally knew they were going into an area where people would be hostile to their message. Some have argued they deliberately tried to provoke a violent response.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The rally took place in a schoolyard lot at the corner of 2nd & Master Streets. This was across the street from the Nanny Goat Market, an open air market where most of the Catholic community gathered for commerce and socializing. It was also less than a block away from St. Michael’s Catholic Church, which served the local Catholic community. The year before, the Sheriff had come to the market with a posse to arrest several locals for the destruction of property during a labor strike. Locals beat the Sheriff and his posse, forcing them to flee the scene without making any arrests. Anyone familiar with the area knew the locals would not like this message and had a history of acting with hostility when confronted in their neighborhood.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Protesters built a wooden speakers platform on a lot across the street from the Market. The speaker was Samuel Kramer, editor of a new newspaper: the </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Native American</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. He called for a 21 year residency requirement before anyone could be given the right to vote because immigrants wanted to “get the Constitution of the United States into their hands and sell it to a foreign power.” Presumably that was a reference to the Pope. </span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Neighborhood locals began to heckle and yell at the speaker as he continued. Soon a group rushed the podium and tore it apart. The outnumbered protesters were chased out of Kensington. Attacks on the protesters themselves were relatively mild, mostly a few rocks or bricks thrown at them. No one was seriously injured. But the crowd demolished the speakers podium. According to the Nativist protesters, the locals tore up and stomped on an American flag they had been carrying.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Conflict Intensifies: Monday May 6</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Over the weekend, Nativist outrage spread through the city in private discussions and at Sunday Church gatherings. On Monday, the Nativists returned to the same field across from the Nanny Goat Market in greater numbers. The rally began as planned at 3:00 PM. This second rally attracted many more people who may not have been hard core Nativists. Broadsides had been posted all over the city urging Philadelphians to support the right of free speech and protection of the American flag:</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiULyHP7FjJ96hA3L28Bc7GEtFPG-WoO1YZh2cj-MjZMhyphenhyphenKLx4qCYFUIsyl8uUdqpu6P07IDJy767AUXLrXSiTxL_m686-KKY3IS2l3dF2J6u3S2cWRxasDkl2qShFMFtfRESrW8XKzti18/s1600/Nativist+Flag.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="222" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiULyHP7FjJ96hA3L28Bc7GEtFPG-WoO1YZh2cj-MjZMhyphenhyphenKLx4qCYFUIsyl8uUdqpu6P07IDJy767AUXLrXSiTxL_m686-KKY3IS2l3dF2J6u3S2cWRxasDkl2qShFMFtfRESrW8XKzti18/s320/Nativist+Flag.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">A flag carried by the Nativist Protesters</span></td></tr>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“The American Republicans of the city and county of Philadelphia, who are determined to support the NATIVE AMERICANS in their Constitutional Rights of peaceably assembling to express their opinions on any question of Public Policy, and to SUSTAIN THE ASSAULTS OF ALIENS AND FOREIGNERS Are requested to assemble on MONDAY AFTERNOON, May 6th, 1844 at 4 o'clock, at the corner of Master and Second street, Kensington, to express their indignation at the outrage of Friday evening last, which was perpetrated by the Irish Catholics, in tearing and trampling under the feet of the American Flag, to take the necessary steps to prevent a repetition of it.”</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3WCXYzyGpiTd9Bda2Jb9arGSqn40jdfO8T1e5kyZzapij_YltVsunO5ppDNvadBIevbfohqmH_Bc7l8mKaQjfjR1a7gf2zxkE9guyuE0evEEOgkZNP7SAy0Ls765yfRcPEA6ao6Fta5Jp/s1600/Lewis_Levin.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3WCXYzyGpiTd9Bda2Jb9arGSqn40jdfO8T1e5kyZzapij_YltVsunO5ppDNvadBIevbfohqmH_Bc7l8mKaQjfjR1a7gf2zxkE9guyuE0evEEOgkZNP7SAy0Ls765yfRcPEA6ao6Fta5Jp/s1600/Lewis_Levin.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Lewis Levin</span></td></tr>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Once again, neighborhood locals confronted the protesters, shouting and jeering at the speakers. This time, however, the protesters had much greater numbers, estimated at 3000, and would not be chased away. One local man pulled into the middle of the crowd and dumped a large load of dirt (some accounts say manure) among the protesters. But this act did not incite any violence and he was allowed to leave. Kramer gave the full speech that had been cut off days earlier. Several other speakers gave addresses, including </span><a href="http://philawalk.org/new-gallery" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Rev. Lewis Levin</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, a Presbyterian minister and also an editor for the </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><i>Philadelphia Sun</i></span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> began a similar speech with a strong anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic tone. </span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">During Levin’s speech, a sudden and heavy thunderstorm began to douse the crowd. Many of the Nativist protesters ran into the Nanny Goat Market across the street, which provided them with shelter from the rain. The market itself was the unofficial political center of the Irish community. Irish locals angrily demanded the protesters leave, but Levin stood up on a stall and attempted to continue his speech. </span><br />
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The heckling and yelling soon turned to physical pushing and punching. Some on both sides, anticipating violence, had brought guns with them. One Nativist protester pulled a pistol and an Irishman dared him to fire. The protester obliged and shooting on both sides began. The outnumbered Irish were driven from the market, but continued to shoot into the market from outside. Four protesters were hit, one fatally. Records of Irish casualties were not reported.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The protesters began to scatter, but were attacked as they ran, mostly by people throwing rocks and bricks. Many fled the neighborhood, but only to go home, collect their guns and return. </span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nativists soon gained the upper hand, and began invading and destroying a number of neighborhood homes, forcing the Catholic families to flee for their lives. The Nativist rioters turned their attention to a Sisters of Charity Seminary but were forced to cut short their assault after being fired upon by several Irish locals defending the area. Violence and destruction continued well into the night with sporadic gunfire.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Rioters Renew Their Rampage: Tuesday May 7</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">By morning the neighborhood had returned to relative calm. But tensions on both sides remained high and another round of violence seemed inevitable.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nativists rallied on the square in front of Independence Hall at 3:30 PM. The Broadside announcing the rally compared the previous day’s violence to </span><a href="http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/saint-bartholomews-day-massacre" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">St. Bartholomew’s Day</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, a centuries old event when the Catholic King of France ordered the slaughter of many thousands of French Protestants.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Another St. Bartholomew’s day has begun in the streets of Philadelphia. The bloody hand of the Pope has stretched forth to our destruction. Now we call on our fellow citizens, who regard free institutions, whether they be native or adopted, to arm. Our liberties are now to be fought for - let us not be slack in our preparation.”</span><br />
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><span style="font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px;">The crowd listened to several speakers and decided to march to Kensington once again. </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Men at the rally formed themselves into ranks and marched military style back to Kensington. They carried a flag which had been damaged in the fighting, along with a sign: </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; font-style: italic; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">"This is the flag which was trampled by the Irish Papists."</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Anticipating another attack, many of the Irish whose homes had not already been destroyed had packed up what belongings they could and fled the neighborhood. Many armed men remained, prepared to meet the attacking mob. They were greatly outnumbered and outgunned, and were forced to retreat. but not before killing or wounding more than a dozen Nativists. The Nativists proceeded to burn the local volunteer fire house, then all of the Nanny Goat Market, along with many more neighborhood homes.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As the burning and looting of Catholic homes resumed, some Kensington residents saved their homes by hanging American flags from their windows or writing “Native American” on their doors. Priests fled the city or went into hiding, in fear for their lives. Bishop Kenrick put out a broadside that evening trying to bring calm. </span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrvjlh2lIlutUT7PHNLXdxhUUj8Bj1GZx5qMhG2uA-YKIwftFDTbzeZNi__8e8HqCUvxOtRmyWzIJ7CiSujfOp_6e7J9OE4mkfrjZBVjsffLAai7beNf1f9hsH_U1aYCcU0Cndz6vyZBPW/s1600/Kenrick%2527s+Broadside.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrvjlh2lIlutUT7PHNLXdxhUUj8Bj1GZx5qMhG2uA-YKIwftFDTbzeZNi__8e8HqCUvxOtRmyWzIJ7CiSujfOp_6e7J9OE4mkfrjZBVjsffLAai7beNf1f9hsH_U1aYCcU0Cndz6vyZBPW/s1600/Kenrick%2527s+Broadside.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Bishop Kenrick's Broadside</span></td></tr>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><i>“The melancholy riot yesterday, which resulted in the death of several of our fellow beings, calls for our deep sorrow, and it becomes all who have had any share in the Tragical Scene to humble themselves before God, and to sympathize deeply and sincerely with those whose relatives and friends have fallen. I earnestly conjure you to avoid all occasion of excitement, and to shun all public places of assemblage, and to do nothing that in any way may exasperate. Follow peace with all men, and have that CHARITY without which no man can see God.”</i></span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">
The Nativist rioters, however, were not moved by the Bishop’s words. By morning, they had torn down most of the broadsides. Many of the rioters folded them into hats which they wore during the for the following day of continued riots. </span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Where are the Police?</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As thousands of civilians kill, pillage, and loot homes, one might reasonably ask why the police did not put a stop to this. The short answer is that there were not any police in Philadelphia at this time. The modern professional Police Department as we know it today was established in the 1850’s, years after the riots, and largely in response to them. In 1844 Philadelphia had a single constable in each district of the city. This unarmed man’s job was primarily to keep vagrants from loitering and to keep an eye on things. During the night, Watchmen walked the streets, as their name implied, to keep a watch over things, and also to keep the city’s gas lamps lit. They too were unarmed.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">When there was a serious crime, the sheriff was responsible to apprehend the criminals. The Sheriff had the authority to create a posse of civilians to assist him in any necessary law enforcement actions. Members of a Posse were essentially volunteers who decided to help out with a single matter, and could quit at any time.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">To make things even more complicated, Kensington, the center of the riots, was not part of the City of Philadelphia. In 1844, the northern city limit was Vine Street, a good 15 blocks south of the center of violence in Kensington. Philadelphia city authorities did not have jurisdiction there, even if they were inclined to help. Kensington had its own locally elected Constable. But again, this was one unarmed man who could do little against a mob. One former Kensington Constable who had tried to calm the situation in the market during the rain storm had been shot in the face.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Sheriff, whose jurisdiction included all of Philadelphia County, had authority to intervene, but would have to form a posse to help. Since any posse would be drawn from the same pool of men currently engaged in the violence, the ability to get volunteers for such a venture seemed highly unlikely.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In times of emergency, the state militia could restore order. But again, many members of the militia were either participants in the mob, or highly sympathetic to the mob’s political views. Col. Peter Sken Smith, a local militia leader had been one of the protest speakers on May 6. Further, the Sheriff could not order the militia to do anything. Only the Governor could order the State Militia to act.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOjMr8buBxiZzsiD1Y1WNtRR-dbBZYhZTV-x-PthrLuSdugmvjJpIeetyXQyFCohbrdW9bsmP2cmDH_ebVz6ZILkHaJ0HiJv_3R2Y9CeDTrTghGtIJE86cPFaDQ22zkGslnsBA3QynmEL8/s1600/Morton_McMichael.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOjMr8buBxiZzsiD1Y1WNtRR-dbBZYhZTV-x-PthrLuSdugmvjJpIeetyXQyFCohbrdW9bsmP2cmDH_ebVz6ZILkHaJ0HiJv_3R2Y9CeDTrTghGtIJE86cPFaDQ22zkGslnsBA3QynmEL8/s200/Morton_McMichael.jpg" width="150" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Sheriff Morton McMichael</span></td></tr>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Sheriff </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_McMichael" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Morton McMichael</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> had arrived on the scene of the rioting on Monday, May 6 at around 5:00 PM. His presence put an end to open fighting in the immediate area. But he did not have the manpower to end the hostilities. Fighting diminished for a short time but then continued once darkness fell. McMichael asked his friend Gen. </span><a href="http://suvcw.org/mollus/pcinc/gcadwalader.htm" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">George Cadwalader</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, head of the City’s division of State Militia, to provide support to quell the violence. Cadwalader refused, stating that he was concerned about mobilizing State militia without an express order from the Governor. Gen. Cadwalader remained personally with Sheriff McMichael that night as an observer and adviser, but no troops would arrive to establish order.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4YwBfVjrH3S_T2rIhVkGmjkor3UsaJ67YDF1GphPtRYE05CRDxZvubWwes8AuhPnodnavMpe1gXk_BzI7hyrKUyNScdd0bxrBeGFtXlp8_skouKyoKcMXTnh-tTj8U3g51n6gq8QP3zgQ/s1600/George_Cadwalader.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4YwBfVjrH3S_T2rIhVkGmjkor3UsaJ67YDF1GphPtRYE05CRDxZvubWwes8AuhPnodnavMpe1gXk_BzI7hyrKUyNScdd0bxrBeGFtXlp8_skouKyoKcMXTnh-tTj8U3g51n6gq8QP3zgQ/s200/George_Cadwalader.jpg" width="133" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Gen. George Cadwalader</span></td></tr>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The following day, Tuesday May 7, Cadwalader did assemble several companies of militia and ordered them to swear allegiance to the Sheriff, still without any input from the Gover</span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; line-height: 1.8; text-align: center; white-space: pre-wrap;">nor. But he did not make any attempt to stop the Nativist rally that afternoon in front of Independence Hall, or to block the mob’s march on Kensington. His troops marched up to Kensington after the violence had resumed on Tuesday evening. Their mere presence caused most of the open violence to end. The troops could not be everywhere though. Scattered incidences of shooting, arson, and looting continued overnight.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Destruction Continues: Wednesday, May 8</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Militia troops remained on patrol overnight and into Wednesday morning. Seeing the burning ruins of the neighborhood and the presence of militia patrols, many thought the worst of the violence had passed. The militia, however, proved unwilling to take action against the Nativists. Judging from newspaper articles of the time, most Philadelphians seemed to blame the Irish for the attacks. It was, after all, the Irish who had attacked “peaceful assemblies” of protesters on both Friday and Monday. Great publicity was given to the deaths and injuries of Nativists, with less attention given to the destruction of the Irish neighborhoods.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Nativist groups returned to Kensington on Wednesday morning, forming “vigilance committees” to search Irish homes for guns. As if breaking into private homes was not enough, the homes tended to catch fire and burn as soon as the search was complete. The Militia saw this action but refused to prevent it. A militia Captain called on a crowd of Nativists to disburse, but when they burned down a home anyway, the militia refused to act. It soon became clear that the militia was there to observe, but would not use force to create order.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Militia had been assembled to protect </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Roman_Catholic_Church,_Philadelphia" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">St. Michael’s Church</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, just north of the Nanny Goat Market in Kensington. On Wednesday afternoon, in broad daylight, the Protesters distracted the troops by setting fire to several houses around the corner. Once the militia moved to investigate, Protesters set fire to the church and rectory. The crows surrounded the church, playing protestant hymns on a fife and drum, as they prevented firefighters from putting out the fire. No one was arrested for arson, although three were arrested for desecrating graves after the militia returned.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPoQAdI8-CtGxaWLhWBFFtvFxby_mw9iq_OgWXXVm2kHQstKzoltBIN9GiNWIwSn5VqCRiSAmlnSy4_i18VmhRJQdx5lsF8GBBWgZUiLTlrSUscbeY8-Ao50jEW17Vu9Ot6I_1hMhGmmCt/s1600/Burning+of+St+Michaels.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPoQAdI8-CtGxaWLhWBFFtvFxby_mw9iq_OgWXXVm2kHQstKzoltBIN9GiNWIwSn5VqCRiSAmlnSy4_i18VmhRJQdx5lsF8GBBWgZUiLTlrSUscbeY8-Ao50jEW17Vu9Ot6I_1hMhGmmCt/s400/Burning+of+St+Michaels.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Burning of St. Michael's Church, on Wednesday afternoon, May 8<br />From: "A Full and Complete Account of the Late Awful Riots in Philadelphia"<br />Historical Society of Pennsylvania</span></td></tr>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Next, the mob returned to the Sisters of Charity Seminary that had been attacked Monday night. This time, there was no resistance and the Seminary was burned, as were more homes and businesses. Included in the destruction was the home of Hugh Clark, the school administrator who had suspended Bible readings months before.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">St. Augustine Church on Fire, 1844</span><br />
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Historical Society of Pennsylvania</span></td></tr>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">More militia reinforcements arrived after St. Michael’s had burned. But the destruction continued. The main reason they began to subside was the lack of anything still worth burning in the area. Undeterred, the mob marched south toward </span><a href="http://www.ushistory.org/tour/st-augustine.htm" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">St. Augustine’s Church</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, just inside the Philadelphia city limits. </span><br />
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Mayor </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Morin_Scott_(mayor)" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">John Morin Scott</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> seemed more willing to defend property from mobs now entering the city. Constables and volunteer patrols covered much of the city. Scott himself, with the support of ward constables and volunteers stood in the defense of St. Augustine against the mob. But thousands had surrounded the church as night fell and a tensions were high. Somehow, a teenager entered the church during all this, cut a gas line and used it to start a fire. The crowd prevented firefighters from approaching and cheered as the steeple fell into the fire.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRz6-emOrzSjKvb4WJ7xkHsL8nT5I5E8BJAXA0SCcYhHjook6bU8q3Lps8tz4GKjePgHndnRQ-0WzV3GlH0017ZwJ4ytMBVfXO4FYKzrB4pllH3NU7VG4_oK_7QI97XZEkeCG-Kd6gOdgy/s1600/Ruins+in+Kensington.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="242" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRz6-emOrzSjKvb4WJ7xkHsL8nT5I5E8BJAXA0SCcYhHjook6bU8q3Lps8tz4GKjePgHndnRQ-0WzV3GlH0017ZwJ4ytMBVfXO4FYKzrB4pllH3NU7VG4_oK_7QI97XZEkeCG-Kd6gOdgy/s400/Ruins+in+Kensington.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
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Ruins in Kensington</div>
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">from "A Full and Complete Account of the Late Awful Riots in Philadelphia":<br />Historical Society of Pennsylvania</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Order is restored: Thursday May 9</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAHJXoXgW7dYqWr1-SiJvkYkb0bSZJdU-cK4Y5rlDcvAT3jflyvZAJHJeJL_kgJyK3Jl_MgGo09DH-aaBb6ohy2bdokfm-io3q3AkkYzUazNE3UpO0o0K68LyFk9DWMD_1L9EYRXYR8bUN/s1600/Robert+Patterson.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAHJXoXgW7dYqWr1-SiJvkYkb0bSZJdU-cK4Y5rlDcvAT3jflyvZAJHJeJL_kgJyK3Jl_MgGo09DH-aaBb6ohy2bdokfm-io3q3AkkYzUazNE3UpO0o0K68LyFk9DWMD_1L9EYRXYR8bUN/s200/Robert+Patterson.jpg" width="121" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Gen. Robert Patterson</span></td></tr>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">By Thursday, public opinion was beginning to turn. Burning down Kensington was one thing, Setting fires in Philadelphia proper was another. A crowd assembled that morning in front of Independence Hall, but this time to demand the city restore order and put an end to the violence. That same day, the Governor had arrived from Harrisburg with </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Patterson" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Gen. Robert Patterson</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, the head of the Pennsylvania Militia, and additional soldiers. Martial law was declared. Curfews were established and armed soldiers put an end to the violence with a large show of force. Cannon were placed in front of </span><a href="http://www.stjohnsphilly.com/about-st-johns" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">St. John’s Catholic Church</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">. Gen. Cadwalader now ordered his soldiers fire on any group that threatened the church.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Martial law continued for a week. Bishop Kenrick suspended Sunday services in all surviving Catholic churches in the city in order to prevent any potential violence. This show of force ended outright violence, but the tension between the Nativists and Catholics remained.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As one editorial at the time put it; </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“Such is a Sunday in the nineteenth century in the city of Philadelphia. Religious toleration enforced by loaded muskets, drawn sabers, and at the cannon's mouth--charity secured through dread of 'grape and canister.”</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The City Reacts to the Disorder</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">If the purpose of the Nativists was to stir up public sentiment against the Irish or Catholics in order to improve their own popularity, they failed miserably. The overwhelming reaction in the following weeks was a general outrage against mob violence. While many held the Irish responsible, the Nativists were not seen as innocent victims. They too bore much of the responsibility, especially for the last two days of rioting. Sheriff McMichael also suffered in the court of public opinion for his relatively weak and feckless attempts to restore order in Kensington. Mayor Scott and Gen. Cadwalader also received criticism for the weak or delayed actions.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Many continued to blame the Irish. A Grand Jury issued a report focused blame on “efforts by a portion of the community to exclude the Bible from the Public Schools.” It called the Nativist protests in Kensington a </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“peaceful exercise of sacred rights and privileges guaranteed to every citizen by the constitution and laws of our state and country.”</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Of course, the Grand Jury contained no one with an Irish name. Two of the jurors were members of the American Republican Party, and one was the son of one of the Nativist rioters injured in the violence. No Irish were called to testify before the Grand Jury.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Lewis Levin, the speaker on May 6 when the violence erupted, decried the violence of the riots but also indicated he believed a Catholic conspiracy was the cause of it:</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“splendid rifles and warlike munition not appropriate to their condition have been found in the possession of Irish Catholics of the lowest grade of poverty, clearly showing that the chief actors or instigators of this bloody assault on peaceable Americans are yet behind the scenes, and that they are person of wealth, thus clearly indicating the deep-laid schemes of conspirators by heads as clear and as their hearts are black.”</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">He concluded by calling the Nativists </span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: italic; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">“persecuted martyrs defending our lives and liberties.”</span><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> </span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The American Republican Party continued to hold rallies throughout the summer, focusing primarily on the Nativists killed during the riots and trying to turn the narrative to one of dangerous armed Irish Immigrants threatening American freedom. Their efforts led many to believe that while the Nativist reaction had gone too far, the Irish had started the violence by attacking a peaceful political meeting. </span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Sheriff McMichael and militia leaders, sensitive to the criticism that they had reacted too slowly and meekly to the May riots, ensured that plans were in place among militia and volunteers to prevent any violence predicted during the July 4 celebrations. While the celebrations were unusually large, and had a strongly Bible theme in an apparent direct provocation to the Irish Catholics, the day passed with no unusual disturbances. Throughout the summer, quick deployment of troops defused several potential conflicts.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Irish Catholics, however, remained concerned and on alert for the next possible attack. In the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwark,_Philadelphia" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Southwark District</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">, just outside the City’s southern border, the Catholic Church </span><a href="http://www.clicktrinity.com/library/studio177/docs/spnchurch.pdf" style="text-decoration: none;"><span style="background-color: transparent; color: #1155cc; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: underline; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">St. Philip Neri</span></a><span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"> feared possible violence during the July 4 celebrations based on rumors that had been passed along to them. The Church received permission from the State to form a militia company, and was issued weapons by the State to be stored in the Church. Nativists learned that the Church contained weapons and were determined to disarm the Catholics, by force if necessary.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">All parties seemed to enter July with new points of view in light of the May Riots. The American Republican Party was still working to shed its image as a bunch of “church burners” and sought to move its image back to one of respectable American Protestants. The Irish were much more cautious about engaging in violence, knowing full well that they were a minority and the the vengeance of the majority for any violence could be devastating. The Sheriff and Militia leaders were determined to meet any signs of violence with much faster and more overwhelming force to prevent any actions from getting out of hand.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Riots Reignite: Friday, July 5, 1844</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">On July 5, the word of an armed group of Irish with a secret arsenal in St. Philip’s Church spread around town when witnesses saw replacements for five defective weapons taken into the church that day. Thousands of Nativist activists surrounded the church that evening and demanded removal of all weapons. Sheriff McMichael was made aware of the disturbance and headed to the scene, but first stopping to consult with Gen. Patterson at his home nearby. It was at that time that Patterson informed him that the church was in lawful possession of the weapons as an authorized state militia unit.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOWI2ICAD5rux1WiS8qgAR3mFUzb6IsbX1aAWxvH__NHUrYburvwxK1E3Kzhia2gHU9Fw6sR3v4dRg6F5CnJd-9NI151w93R1jHu6HDUBXU9EtnYwDZkxn1I9XSW8mvOz1rsHtmqybw7N1/s1600/Philip+Neri+Church.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOWI2ICAD5rux1WiS8qgAR3mFUzb6IsbX1aAWxvH__NHUrYburvwxK1E3Kzhia2gHU9Fw6sR3v4dRg6F5CnJd-9NI151w93R1jHu6HDUBXU9EtnYwDZkxn1I9XSW8mvOz1rsHtmqybw7N1/s320/Philip+Neri+Church.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">St. Philip Neri Church</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Sheriff then went to the Church and got the Catholics inside to agree to let him remove the five guns that the Nativists had seen arrive that day. He would tell the crowd all the guns had been confiscated and leave the remaining twenty militia guns with the Catholics inside the church. Unfortunately, the mob did not trust the Catholics and demanded the search the church themselves. </span><br />
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span></div>
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Eventually the Sheriff brokered a deal to allow a group of twenty unarmed Nativists to inspect the church. The group ended up finding not only the militia weapons, but a total of 53 muskets and rifles, as well as 10 pistols, stashed in various places throughout the church. McMichael was concerned that the sight of the weapons would enrage the mob and possibly lead to another church burning. Nativist leaders, still smarting from the public reaction of the May riots did not seem to have any desire to see the church burned either. The men agreed to stay in the church with the weapons until morning. In the meantime a company of militia moved in place to defend the church and disburse the mob outside.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Gen. Patterson sent a company of militia to clear the street in front of the church. The crowd obeyed militia orders and pulled back without any violence. The crowd dwindled overnight, but remained vigilant and demanding the Irish Catholics not be allowed to remain armed (despite the fact that there were no laws preventing the possession of such arms). Around midnight, the remaining arms were removed from the church, but military and Nativist leaders remained in the church and the mob remained outside.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Deadly Violence Narrowly Avoided: Saturday July 6</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As Saturday morning wore on, the crowd grew back to about one thousand, with the small militia company still in control of the area immediately in front of the church and with the 20 man posse of nativists still in the church along with a group of Catholics. </span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Early in the afternoon, Gen. Cadwalader arrived on the scene with more militia. Apparently desiring to counter his laid back performance in Kensington. He demanded the crowd disperse and told them that the Church had a legal right to the guns in their possession. The crowd refused to move and the General left the scene to make plans to remove them by force.</span><br />
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Another militia General Hubbell arrived during the afternoon to inquire about the Catholic militia unit that had been created at the church. Gen. Hubbell demanded that the company's commander, Capt. Dunn hand over his commission papers and disbanded the company. This was announced to the mob outside but was not enough to disperse them.</span></div>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">That evening, Sheriff McMichael returned to the scene with a posse of 150 men, armed only with clubs and batons. The Sheriff ordered the street closed to everyone but residence and was able to get the crowd to move off the block without any violence. Gen. Patterson sent over additional militia to relieve the existing force and ensure calm overnight.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Then around 11:00 PM, Gen. Cadwalader returned to the scene with his militia, as well as three cannon. He decided to clear all protesters from the blocks surrounding the street, and to arrest anyone that put up any resistance. He had his men fix bayonets and charge into surprised crowds who quickly retreated. After several charges, the crowds had been pushed back several blocks but were now in a far angrier mood. They began throwing rocks and paving stones at the soldiers. Cadwalader, angered by the resistance, said he would fire on the crowd if they continued. Angry shouts from the crowd dared him to fire.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Cadwalader had had enough. He ordered his troops to fire by platoon. They took aim against the crowd and prepared to fire. At the last second, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Naylor">Charles Naylor</a>, a member of the Sheriff’s posse and a former Congressman, stepped out in front of the crowd and said “My God, don’t shoot, don’t shoot!” The soldiers hesitated and did not fire, which only seemed to anger Cadwalader even more. He had Naylor arrested for inciting mutiny among the soldiers.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The crowd, however, realized that Cadwalader meant business and was intent of firing on them. They took the time from Naylor’s distraction and arrest to disperse. The rest of the night remained calm. </span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The Final Showdown: Sunday July 7</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Shortly before dawn, Cadwalader dismissed the posse and most of the militia. He left two companies in place to defend the church. The two companies combined only totaled about three or four dozen men. More importantly, the large company was the “Hibernia Greens” a militia made up of Irish Catholics wearing green uniforms. Early in the morning, the smaller company, Markles Rifles, was dismissed to go find breakfast. They were supposed to return, but took several hours, meaning they were absent for the following events.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As morning broke, the crowd now demanded that the twenty member posse, still in the church, be released. Many in the crowd thought they were being held as prisoners by the Catholics. They were released. But Charles Naylor was still held under arrest in the church. The crowd demanded his immediate release, and otherwise threatened to storm the church and release him by force. To back up their demand, the crowd brought up a small cannon that had been on a ship in the docks</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Militia commander Capt. John Colahan of the Hibernia Greens was under direct orders to hold Naylor for prosecution. He immediately sent for reinforcements from Gen. Cadwalader. Around noon, the Markles Rifles Company returned from breakfast. Their Captain, Thomas Saunders was a Nativist and trusted by the crowd. He brokered a settlement with Capt. Colahan to release Naylor. Absent any reinforcements arriving, Colahan was forced to agree to the release.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The crowd, however, was still not finished. The cannon was taken to the back of the church and fired. A church window was blown out as well as minor damage to the brick wall. The protesters had not brought extra ammunition for the cannon, but pulled it back to the wharf, reloaded, returned to the church and fired again. Again, no real damage was done, but those inside the church were justifiably alarmed. A second cannon also soon arrived, but was not fired.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Inexplicably, militia reinforcements still failed to arrive. Even more surprising, the voice of calm and reason at this point turned out to be Lewis Levin, the man whose speech began the July 6 riots and who continued to write and publish regular newspaper articles sounding the alarm about armed Irish conspiracies. Levin and a few other leaders of the American Republican Party arrived on the scene and pleaded for calm. They did not want the Party to be blamed for the destruction of yet another church.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The crowd agreed to stop the attack if the Hibernia Greens left the church. Levin reached an agreement with Capt. Colahan that he and a number of other American Republican party leaders would remain to protect the Church. During the discussions, a mob broke down a door to the church and attempted to enter. The Markles Rifles Militia was able to keep the group from entering the church. Capt. Colahan was convinced now that his position was untenable. He tried to convince the Nativist militia to stay, but Capt. Saunders insisted that the crowd wanted him to accompany the Hibernia Militia away from the church. This left Levin and the American Republicans in control of the church.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">As the militia retreated, they were harassed by the mob and pelted with stones. At one point, the soldiers fired, apparently firing high to scare the protesters as no one was hit. But these shots only inflamed the mob who pursued the soldiers with new fury. They scattered, seeking shelter in various houses and remained in hiding. One soldier was caught and beaten nearly to death by the mob.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Meanwhile, back at the church, the 40 or so American Republican leaders were unable to keep the mob from entering the church. Hundreds filled the building, doing mostly minor damage. It seems like the height of irony that the Nativist American Republican leaders were now the primary defenders of a Catholic Church. Their defense was mostly successful. There were two separate attempts to set the church on fire, but both were quickly extinguished. The more troublesome intruders were expelled from the church. By around 6:00 only about 80 American Republican men remained in the church, all apparently focused on preventing further damage. They then called on those still outside the church to go home as everything had been resolved. It seemed that excitement was now over and people began to leave.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Then, Gen. Cadwalader arrived back on the scene with a large number of militia. He reignited the situation by demanding the American Republicans leave the church and turn it over to the militia. They complied and returned to the street with the remaining protesters. The Sheriff also arrived on the scene at the same time, after hearing rumors that the church had been set on fire. Gen. Cadwalader, however, remained in control of the scene.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">The crowd showed great hostility to the soldiers, recalling that they had almost fired on them the night before. Some began hurling paving stones and rocks at the soldiers again. Cadwalader next ordered his men to clear the street. They began with a bayonet charge into the crowd. A fight between soldiers and protesters ensued. As the soldiers pulled back, Cadwalader ordered another unit to fire into the crowd. Two were killed and four injured. The casualties apparently would have been higher, but many soldiers deliberately fired too high or too low to hit the intended targets.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This act further enraged the Nativists. They could not stand against the soldiers in the street, but began firing from rooftops and house windows along the street. As darkness fell on the city, protesters brought back the two cannon from the wharf and fired on the soldiers. Two soldiers were killed and several wounded. The soldiers who had a cannon of their own, returned fire from where they saw the flash and wounded three protesters. The firing continued for about two hours. The protesters had muffled the wheels of the cannon, so they could fire and then move silently in the dark before the soldiers could respond. Small arms fire also continued from houses. At least a dozen soldiers were shot.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Gen Cadwalader asked for a cavalry troop that could charge the cannon much more quickly. Around Midnight, Gen. Patterson sent a cavalry unit to assist. But the protesters had apparently heard the horses and made plans. When they fired their cannon and the cavalry charged, the soldiers were knocked off their horses by a rope that the protesters had tied across the street. They then attempted to fire on the fallen soldiers at point blank range, but the cannon misfired. The soldiers then charged the cannon, killing two protesters and capturing the gun.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Fighting mostly ended by around 2:00 AM, with about 25-30 casualties on each side. Protester casualties are uncertain as many were not reported.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Order is Restored: Monday July 8</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"><br /></b>
<br />
<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">By Monday morning hundreds of soldiers patrolled the streets. All meetings were banned any anyone saying anything inflammatory was arrested. Residents were clearly hostile to the soldiers. They kept their doors closed to them and refused to provide any water as the soldiers marched through the hot July streets of Philadelphia. </span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"></b><br />
<b style="font-weight: normal;"></b>
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<div style="text-align: right;">
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhx2d9pGuirP0mZdDJQXJWQAydzvNV6h7_dbIs6K62XHB4yNqDIQBCOsc7Ydjx1W8RhOijrxrtHbhSKDP9fYuTec-v1knuCSDaPAc1qa6j_ZBRdMpbSreZCoIZ1SOTvvpAr4qFDfBWsckGH/s1600/Patterson+leading+militia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="136" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhx2d9pGuirP0mZdDJQXJWQAydzvNV6h7_dbIs6K62XHB4yNqDIQBCOsc7Ydjx1W8RhOijrxrtHbhSKDP9fYuTec-v1knuCSDaPAc1qa6j_ZBRdMpbSreZCoIZ1SOTvvpAr4qFDfBWsckGH/s320/Patterson+leading+militia.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Gen. Patterson leading Militia</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 400; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">By early afternoon, city leaders decided the soldiers should be withdrawn and replaced by civilian volunteers. The volunteers were generally able to keep order. There were a few beatings, and a thwarted attempt by some boys seen rolling a cannon toward another Catholic Church. But the violence had been dissipated and order restored.</span></div>
<b style="font-weight: normal;"></b><br />
<b style="font-weight: normal;"></b>
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<div dir="ltr" style="line-height: 1.7999999999999998; margin-bottom: 0pt; margin-top: 0pt;">
<span style="background-color: transparent; color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: 700; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Aftermath</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Police: </b>The most significant change following the riots was the modernization of the Philadelphia Police force and the political unification of the city. In 1845, less than a year after the riots, a new law raised funds for hiring a real police force, which included at least one policeman for every 150 inhabitants in Philadelphia and surrounding districts. This force would be led by elected superintendents. The Sheriff was also given the power to call up the militia to help handle large groups of people threatening to riot. Several additional reform laws were enacted over the next few years, culminating in the 1854 State law that finally unified Philadelphia with the surrounding districts, all under an elected mayor and city council. .</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Sheriff Morton McMichael</b> had been a successful newspaper editor in addition to being Sheriff. After the riots, he joined the Native American Party and </span></span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;">won reelection, but then left public office in 1846. After the Civil War, he was elected Mayor as a member of the new Republican Party. Later, he served as </span><span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;">president of the Fairmount Park Commission from 1867 until his death in 1879.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Gen. George Cadwalader</b> went on to serve actively in both the Mexican War and Civil War, before retiring from service in 1865 at the end of the Civil War. During the Civil War, he is remembered for his role in the US Supreme Court case of<a href="http://www.fjc.gov/history/home.nsf/page/tu_merryman_bio_cadwalader.html"> <i>Ex Parte Merryman</i></a> when he refused to comply with a writ of <i>Habeas Corpus</i> ordered by<a href="http://www.pbs.org/wnet/supremecourt/democracy/robes_taney.html"> Chief Justice Roger Taney</a>. After the war he </span><span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 26.4px; white-space: pre-wrap;">helped found the <a href="http://loyallegionpa.org/">Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States</a>. </span></span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6667px; line-height: 26.4px; white-space: pre-wrap;">He spent the rest of his life living quietly in Philadelphia, where he died in 1879.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Gen. Robert Patterson</b> also served honorably in the Mexican War, where he was wounded in battle. He grew wealthy investing in Sugar and Cotton mills and remained active in Pennsylvania politics. Patterson received a commission to fight in the Civil War, but after receiving blame for his part in the disastrous failure and retreat at the First Battle of Bull Run, the 69 year old General was mustered out of service shortly thereafter. Both his son and son-in-law rose to the rank of General during the War. Patterson remained in Philadelphia where he died in 1881.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Nativist Party: </b>In the months following the riots, the American Republican party saw some significant electoral victories. </span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;"> The Party renamed itself the Native American Party in 1845 with continued success, and eventually became the American Party (also called the "Know-Nothing" Party) in 1854. In the following decade or so, it was an important player in Philadelphia politics as well as the rest of the region. Nativists elected two of their own to Congress, as well as officials controlling the local school boards. They also took positions responsible for hiring police for the new enlarged force, and also regulating bars and other businesses, thus making life generally miserable for the Irish Immigrants subjected to these laws.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;">The party saw some electoral success as it expanded and joined with similar groups in Massachuetts and New York, but never took hold in Pennsylvania at the State level. Eventually the party divided on the issue of slavery after the 1857</span><a href="http://www.oyez.org/cases/1851-1900/1856/1856_0/" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;"> Dred Scott</a><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;"> decision. The Anti-slavery faction joined the Republican Party with others supporting the </span><a href="http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/history/constitutional-union-party.html" style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;">Constitutional Union Party </a><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;">in 1860. The party vanished completely by the time the Civil War began.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Lewis Levin</b> served several terms in Congress before a failed attempt for the US Senate, which ended in a bribery scandal. He became a founding and leading member of the Know-Nothing Party of the 1850s. This party was deeply opposed to immigration and Catholicism. He never held office again. After an 1856 diatribe against Republican Candidate John Fremont, which ended in a violent scuffle, he was committed to an insane asylum. He died in an asylum in 1860.</span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; line-height: 1.8; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Irish Catholics: </b></span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; line-height: 1.8; white-space: pre-wrap;">The labor movement in Kensington was sufficiently cowed by the destruction of the Riots. Labor actions over the next few years were less violent and far less effective. In 1846 a strike among weavers failed miserably and wages were cut. The impoverished weavers became more objects of pity than a threatening force. Eventually hand weaving was replaced by machines and the community dispersed to find other jobs.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; line-height: 1.8; white-space: pre-wrap;">Despite the conditions, Irish Catholic immigration only increased in the following years - primarily a result of the Irish Potato Famine. By the Civil War, the Catholic population of Philadelphia had grown to an estimated 30% of the population, up from the 10% at the time of the riots. The majority of these were Irish. Irish became more organized politically and began to take elected offices away from the nativists. While the Irish were not a majority of voters, they had to be taken seriously and accommodated by those seeking election.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial";"><span style="font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;">St. Michael and St. Augustine were rebuilt in the years following, along with dozens more churches in the decades that followed, to accommodate the growing population. Both of these churches, as well as St. Phillip Neri, continue to serve the Catholic community in Philadelphia to this day.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Bishop Francis Patrick Kenrick</b> saw his diocese grow rapidly as a result of immigration. The number of churches grew from 22 in 1830 when he took office to 92 in 1850. After the riots he ceased lobbying for and end to the Protestant instruction in public schools. Instead he created the </span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666669845581px; line-height: 26.4000015258789px; white-space: pre-wrap;">separate Catholic parochial school system that continues to this day. </span><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; line-height: 1.8; white-space: pre-wrap;">In 1851, he became Archbishop of Baltimore where he expanded the parochial school system to other dioceses He died in 1863.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; line-height: 1.8; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Conclusion</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6666666666667px; line-height: 1.8; white-space: pre-wrap;">Philadelphia never again saw religious riots like 1844. Public schools in Pennsylvania maintained mandatory Protestant Bible Readings until the US Supreme Court ordered an end to the practice in <a href="http://www.oyez.org/cases/1960-1969/1962/1962_142">Abington School Dist. v. Schempp</a> in 1963. Catholics abandoned the public school system almost entirely, remaining in their separate parochial school systems. Philadelphia elected its first Catholic Mayor also in 1963, when John Tate was elected after succeeding to the position when his predecessor resigned to run for Governor. Today Catholics and the descendants of Irish Immigrants are woven tightly into the fabric of Philadelphia.</span></div>
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<br />
<b><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">Listen to this Post as a Podcast: </span><a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-10-09T08_21_29-07_00" style="font-family: arial; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;" target="_blank">Part 1</a><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;"> & </span><a href="https://www.podomatic.com/podcasts/unlearnedhistory/episodes/2016-10-16T12_50_43-07_00" style="font-family: arial; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;" target="_blank">Part 2</a><span style="font-family: "arial"; font-size: 14.6667px; white-space: pre-wrap;">.</span></b><br />
<br /></div>
</div>
<b>For More Reading</b><br />
<br />
I am most grateful for a number of online resources that have provided research and media for this post.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://exhibits.library.villanova.edu/chaos-in-the-streets-the-philadelphia-riots-of-1844/">http://exhibits.library.villanova.edu/chaos-in-the-streets-the-philadelphia-riots-of-1844</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/nativist-riots-of-1844/">http://philadelphiaencyclopedia.org/archive/nativist-riots-of-1844</a><br />
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<br /></div>
<a href="http://www.pahrc.net/tag/nativist-riots-of-1844">http://www.pahrc.net/tag/nativist-riots-of-1844</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.philaplace.org/story/316/">http://www.philaplace.org/story/316</a><br />
<br />
<a href="http://kennethwmilano.com/page/Encyclopaedia/KensingtonAntiIrishCatholicRiotsofMay1844/tabid/121/Default.aspx">http://kennethwmilano.com/page/Encyclopaedia/KensingtonAntiIrishCatholicRiotsofMay1844/tabid/121/Default.aspx</a><br />
<br />
For more in depth reading, I recommend the following books:<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.amazon.com/Philadelphia-Riots-1844-Conflict-Contributions/dp/0837178762">The Philadelphia Riots of 1844</a> by Michael Feldberg (1975)<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
<a href="http://www.amazon.com/Philadelphia-Nativist-Riots-Kensington-Erupts/dp/1626190194">The Philadelphia Nativist Riots</a> by Kenneth Milano (2015)<br />
<br />
<a href="https://archive.org/details/fullcompleteacco00phil">A full and complete account of the late awful riots in Philadelphia</a> by John Perry (1844)<br />
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<b id="docs-internal-guid-e44d4aa0-56fe-9932-60b2-3afe45e7be88" style="font-weight: normal;">
</b>Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-46718670099436556812015-08-15T09:35:00.000-04:002016-10-22T08:43:15.342-04:00Immigration in America: Us vs. Them, until they become us.<a href="http://unlearnedhistory.podomatic.com/entry/2016-09-17T11_01_11-07_00" target="_blank">Listen to Part 1 of this episode as a podcast</a>.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://unlearnedhistory.podomatic.com/entry/2016-09-25T10_29_37-07_00" target="_blank">Listen to Part 2 of this episode as a podcast.</a><br />
<br />
The US is a nation of immigrants. Most countries have populations that have been there since before written history. By contrast, almost everyone in the US today is either an immigrant or descended from someone who immigrated to the US within the last 400 years.<br />
<br />
American Indians are the one exception to this. I dislike the term "Native Americans" since technically anyone born in America is a "native". I know "Indian" is not an ideal name since it was mistakenly imposed by Columbus thinking he was in the Indies, but for lack of a better term, I'll use it here. Most Indians were wiped out primarily through European diseases. Many more died in wars or through deprivation caused by being forced to live in the least hospitable lands on the continent. While Indian relations would make a very interesting topic, it is not the one I plan to address today. So forgive me if I delay this discussion for another day.<br />
<br />
<b>The First Immigrants</b><br />
<br />
So where did the first European settlers come to settle in what is today the United States? You may be forgiven if the first answer that comes to mind is the Pilgrims at Plymouth Rock in 1620. That answer is wrong, despite what we might have learned in school. The fact that Pilgrims often get the credit is due to the fact that New Englanders were more focused on history than other regions and tended to play up their own first immigrants.<br />
<br />
The first British colonists settled in Roanoke Island in 1585. This was an island just off the coast of what is today North Carolina The colonists were dependent at first on the local Indians for food, and hoped to trade with them. But after they attacked and killed a local chief, relations with the locals were impossible and the colony began to starve. Fortunately for them, explorer Francis Drake stopped by to check on them in 1586 on his way back from attacking some Spanish colonies. All the colonists hopped on his ship and fled back to England. A second attempt to establish a Roanoke colony landed in 1587. But this group of settlers was wiped out, presumably by the Indians.<br />
<br />
A permanent settlement would wait another 20 years until the Virginia Company established "Fort James" (later Jamestown) in what is today Virginia in 1607. The very next year introduced the first "foreigners" to the British inhabitants. In 1608, German, Polish, and Slavic immigrants arrived among a second group of colonists. These were all professional artisans with specific skills needed by the colony to produce goods from raw materials.<br />
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Records from these early years in Jamestown are sketchy. So we don't know exactly what happened. But these "foreigners" did have some problems with the British colonists. Several of the Germans ended up fleeing the colony and going to live with a local Indian tribe rather than continue to live with the British in the colony. Several other of the non-British workers ended up holding the first labor strike in North America after being refused the right to vote in local 1619 elections. From the very beginning, people could not get along as a result of language and culture. British colonists had been in America for all of one year before they started complaining about foreign immigrants and denying them certain rights.<br />
<br />
Incidentally, these British colonies were not the first European colonies in what is today the US. There is some rather sketchy information about Vikings around 1000 AD who settled in Newfoundland (today Canada) moving further south into what is today part of the US, but if any remained, they intermarried with the local Indian populations and lost their distinct identity as Vikings. <br />
<br />
Also, in 1564 the Spanish created a colony near the modern Pensacola Florida, which failed. In 1566, the French settled near Jacksonville Florida in 1566, but were quickly killed by the Spanish. The first successful colony was the Spanish colony in St. Augustine Florida, established in 1565. There was also a Spanish outpost, founded around 1598 in what is today New Mexico, which was part of the Spanish push north from their control of what is today Mexico.<br />
<br />
Over the course of time, there were numerous attempts to establish additional colonies along North America. French, Spanish, Dutch, Swedish, and other groups all attempted to establish colonies. But by 1700, the area along the east coast that would become the US (other than Florida) was pretty much under British control. This did not mean that all the colonists were ethnic English. Many of the colonists from other countries remained living and working in their colony. They simply had to pledge loyalty to the King of England (who by the way was German born and did not speak much English himself). After giving such political pledges, these colonists remained distinct in their use of languages other than English and practicing other traditions from their native lands.<br />
<br />
Many immigrants who came to America, especially in the early 1700s were German. Germany was not a single nation at this time and never had much of a naval presence to create its own colony. But Germans were happy to settle in British colonies, leaving behind the war and deprivation of their native lands.<br />
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Immigration was a double edged sword for the colonies. On the one side, they needed more people in order to make the colony was established. Otherwise, it might be wiped out by Indians or taken by another power that would later decide to colonize the area for itself. But at the same time, colonists wanted to make sure that immigrants were not too different from themselves. Almost as soon as a colony was established, its people began to enact laws to ensure that only the "right sort" were able to enter the colony.<br />
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Most of the early restrictions were not racial or ethnic. They were religious. But of course at the time, religion was controlled by various European governments. So restriction by religion had the same impact as restriction by national origin or ethnicity.<br />
<br />
<b>New England Colonial Immigration</b><br />
<br />
In its first decade of existence, the Massachusetts colony found the need to pass a law to make sure that no local towns allowed any immigrant to settle without permission from the central government of the colony:<br />
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<i>" It is ordered that no Town or person shall receive any stranger resorting hither with intent to reside ... or entertain any such above three weeks, except such persons shall have allowance under the hands of some one of the counsellors, or two other magistrates . . . upon pain that every Town shall forfeit £100 for every offense." Records of Mass. Bay Colony, i, 196. </i><br />
<br />
(For anyone interested in reading more, this and most of the following quotes on Colonial Immigration laws comes from a book <a href="https://archive.org/details/colonialimmigrat00proprich">Colonial immigration laws: a study of the regulation of immigration by the English colonies in America</a> by Emberson Proper (1900)).<br />
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Gov. John Wintrop justified the restriction: <i>"... If we here be a corporation established by free consent, if the place of our cohabitation be our owne, then no man hath a right to come into us with-out our consent ... If we are bound to keep off whatsoever appears to tend to our ruine or damage, then may we lawfully refuse to receive such whose dispositions suite not with ours and whose society (we know) will be hurtful to us."</i><br />
<i>A Defence of an order of the Court, 1637.</i><br />
<i>Life and Letters of John Winthrop, 182.</i><br />
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Most of New England had laws banning Quakers from settling among them. At that time, Quakers had a habit of being particularly aggressive in their attempts to challenge other religions. This included barging in on Sunday services and telling parishioners everything they were doing was wrong. This did not go over well with the Puritans, or most anyone else. It is a practice that the religion, known today more for its silent prayer, has long ago abandoned.<br />
<br />
Similarly, Catholics were barred from the colony, particularly Priests, who under Massachusetts law could be executed if they returned to the colony after being banished once. This was targeted particularly at Jesuit Priests who were from nearby French Canadian colonies and who engaged in missionary conversions of many Indians. It was feared that the French Priests would cause the Indians to rise up against the good Protestants of New England. The Catholic prohibition was also a concern that the ongoing religious wars in Europe would not be continued in the New World. Making sure everyone was a good Protestant was an attempt to keep things peaceful. <br />
<br />
Religion was not the only restriction, however. Massachusetts law in 1709 provided that <i>"No lame, impotent, or infirm persons, incapable of maintaining themselves, should be received without first giving security that the town in which they settled would not be charged with their support." </i>Colonial life was difficult. There was often not enough food to go around and everyone depended on neighbors for group security. People with disabilities were seen as a problem for the whole community and therefore should stay away.<br />
<br />
The result of such laws not only deeply restricted immigration and growth, but had a negative impact on trade as well. Legal reforms eventually allowed other immigrants, provided they had a certain amount of wealth (had to bring personal property worth at least £50) or have certain skills: (able-bodied husbandmen, marines, hand carpenters, laborers, and indentured servants provided they were "not persons of vicious habits," were permitted without the property requirements.<br />
<br />
Still, the result of these laws meant that immigration to Massachusetts and most of New England remained very limited. Population growth in this region tended to be much slower, but also with the much desired lack of diversity among the population.<br />
<br />
<b>Immigration in the Middle Colonies</b><br />
<br />
The Middle Colonies took a quite different approach to immigration but nevertheless maintained restrictions.<br />
<br />
New York had originally been settled by the Dutch as "New Netherlands". These early settlers did not encourage any sort of immigration and remained rather small. As a result, it was a rather simple task for the English to take control of the entire colony in 1664. Still, the Dutch settlers were permitted to remain and incorporate themselves into the new English Colony now called New York. <br />
<br />
To counter this Dutch Population, the English greatly encouraged (Protestant) immigration in the early 1700s in order to make sure the Dutch culture did not remain dominant. As enough Englishmen could not be encouraged to make the move, the colony opened up to other European Protestants who wished to immigrate. The English encouraged about 3000 German Palatines (a southwestern region of what is today Germany) to move to New York. Not to the City, of course, but to set up their own villages in the interior parts of the State where they could serve as a buffer between the English and the Indians.<br />
<br />
Again, there were disputes that arose between the English establishment and the German Immigrants. The immigrants were not given promised land and were forced to work under slave like conditions to pay back loans for their travel. Unlike later indentured servants, these debts were not paid off individually, but laid on the whole community of immigrants to repay through labor. As a result, many German immigrants ended up leaving the colony, and the bad reputation discouraged many more from moving there.<br />
<br />
Instead, many moved to Pennsylvania, which ended up being one of the most open colonies for immigration. Pennsylvania had almost no restrictions on immigration and instead actively courted and encouraged, mostly German Protestants to move to the colony.<br />
<br />
William Penn had founded the colony in 1683. As a Quaker, he was unwelcome in England and most other colonies. He hoped to make his colony a refuge for other victims of religious persecution. It was one of the few colonies that did not actively block Catholics (although Protestants were courted much more aggressively). A small Jewish community thrived in the colony from the time of its founding as well.<br />
<br />
At first look, there was little attraction for immigrants. The only port city was Philadelphia, which was not on the Atlantic Ocean. Rather, one had to travel up the Delaware River to reach the city. Beyond Philadelphia, most of the State could not be reached by water, making trade more difficult. This inability to trade would potentially limit the wealth of the colony and its inhabitants. Still, the promise of religious freedom, cheap land, and political rights made it an attractive destination for many.<br />
<br />
Germany was the largest contributor. At the time, England was ruled by King George I. George, as well as his son George II, were natives of Hanover Germany and did not even know how to speak English. So German ties with England were at a historic high at this time. One advertisement distributed in the Palatine region of Germany read: <br />
<br />
<i>"the King offers to them for a habitation the country west of the Allegheny Mountains, usually considered a part of Pennsylvania, but not yet belonging to it. Each family shall have fifty acres of land in fee simple, and for the first ten years the use, without charge, of as much as they shall want, subject only to the stipulation that after that time the yearly rent of one hundred acres shall be two shillings. There is land enough for 100,000 families, and they shall have permission to live there, not as foreigners, but on their engagement, under oath, to be true and obedient to the King, and to have the same rights as his natural-born subjects.” </i><br />
<br />
Many Palatines moved to Pennsylvania as a result of continuing wars in their home land with Catholic France. Included in this group were many French Huguenot families who had been forced to leave France because of their religion, and had lived in southern Germany for a generation or two. Upon finding a receptive land for immigrants, the first immigrants strongly encourage friends and family to make the trip to Pennsylvania. Immigration continued to grow throughout the early and middle 1700s.<br />
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There were, however, local English Pennsylvanians who raised concerns about immigration:<br />
<br />
At a meeting of the Governor and Council in 1717, the Governor noted <i>"that great numbers of foreigners from Germany, strangers to our language and constitution were lately imported into the Province and daily dispersed themselves without producing any certificates from whence they came or what they were."</i> This unrestricted immigration alarmed officials since <i>"by the same method any number of foreigners from any nation whatever, enemies as well as friends might throw themselves upon the present settlers."</i> Council did not put restrictions on immigration but did order that the masters of vessels who had imported to provide lists of all immigrants and ensure that they took an oath of allegiance to the king of England.<br />
<br />
This openness encourages thousands more to arrive in the years that followed. In 1727 Governor Patrick Gordon warned the Council of his concerns: <i>"A vessel has just arrived with four hundred Palatines on board, and they are soon to be followed by a much greater number. . . . They transport themselves without any leave obtained from the Crown of Great Britain, and settle themselves upon the proprietor's lands without any application to his commissioners or the government. Measures ought to be taken at once for the peace and security of the province which may be endangered by such numbers of strangers daily poured in, who being ignorant of our language and laws, and</i><br />
<i>settling in a body together, make, as it were, a distinct people from his Majesty's subjects."</i><br />
<br />
English Pennsylvanians shared this alarm at having people of a different language, culture, and traditions from living among them:<br />
<br />
<i>"why should the Palatine Boors be suffered to swarm into our settlements, and by herding together establish their languages and manners to the exclusion of ours? Why should Pennsylvania, founded by the English, become a colony of Aliens, who will shortly be so numerous as to Germanize us instead of our Anglifying them, and will never adopt our language or customs, any more than they </i><br />
<i>can acquire our complexion?"</i><br />
<br />
Benjamin Franklin, <a href="http://www.archive.org/stream/increasemankind00franrich/increasemankind00franrich_djvu.txt">Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries &c., </a>1755.<br />
<br />
Amazingly, Franklin continues his article by spouting even more racist rants:<br />
<br />
<i>"Which leads me to add one remark: That the number of purely white people in the world is proportionably very small. All Africa is black or tawny. Asia chiefly tawny. America (exclusive of the new comers) wholly so. And in Europe, the Spaniards, Italians, French, Russians and Swedes are generally of what we call a swarthy complexion ; as are the Germans also, the Saxons only excepted, who with the English make the principal body of white people on the face of the earth. I could wish their numbers were increased. And while we are, as I may call it, scouring our planet, by clearing America of woods, and so making this side of our globe reflect a brighter light to the eyes of inhabitants in Mars or Venus, why should we in the sight of superior beings, darken its people? why increase the sons of Africa, by planting them in America, where we have so fair an opportunity, by excluding all blacks and tawneys, of increasing the lovely white and red? But perhaps I am partial to the complexion of my Country, for such kind of partiality is natural to Mankind." Ibid.</i><br />
<br />
I find it startling that Franklin does not count most Germans as "white people" (or Swedes for that matter). I guess it just goes to show how the border lines on racism have changed over time. <br />
<br />
Many of the immigrants were poor, too poor to pay for their own passage. As a result, they often had to serve as indentured servants for 3-7 years to pay for their passage. While many see indentured servitude as better than slavery since it was voluntary and only for a short period of time, we should not overlook the cruelties that resulted from the system. Many died on the passage over. Once arrived, they were auctioned off like property to whomever had the money and the need. Families were separated by this. Many were literally worked to death in swamps, mines, and other inhospitable environments as the owner attempted to get his money's worth before the end of the indenture. There is also evidence that some indentured servants did not come voluntarily. Some were brought aboard ships by fraud and some outright kidnapped by ship captains who profited from their sale in the new world.<br />
<br />
There also came an influx if Irish immigrants around this same time. Irish immigrants from the colonial period seemed to have integrated well. They already spoke English. Most of the Irish immigrants from this time were Protestant. They tended to be "Scotch-Irish". These were Protestants from Scotland, brought to Northern Ireland by Oliver Cromwell in the 1600's to displace Catholics. Many of their descendants grew weary of the limited opportunities and continued religious fighting in Ireland and sought a new life in Pennsylvania and other colonies.<br />
<br />
In 1729, there was enough concern over the immigration that the Colony enacted a tax in immigrants. The exact amount is in question, but it was enough that several ships took their immigrants over to New Jersey or the Carolinas to avoid the tax. The tax was repealed after only a few months, but even liberal Pennsylvania was moved over its concern for immigration.<br />
<div>
<br /></div>
Pennsylvania remained a popular source of immigration throughout the colonial period. The result of this immigration meant that despite its late start and unattractive location on the interior of the coast, Pennsylvania grew to be the second largest colony by the end of the colonial period. This large influx of Germans also meant a very large non-English speaking society right in the middle of the English Colonies. These, immigrants, soon called "Pennsylvania Dutch" (Dutch in this case being a bastardization of the word Germans call themselves: " Deutsche". As a general matter, this group was pretty unobjectionable. They were pacifists, remained fairly uncontroversial in politics, paid their taxes and generally did not try to convert outsiders to their religion. Many of these communities remained German speaking until WWI. A few (mostly Amish) continue to speak a variant of German as their first language to this day.<br />
<br />
<b>Immigration in Southern Colonies</b><br />
<br />
Maryland was similarly tolerant of immigrants, although it never advertised as aggressively as its northern neighbor Pennsylvania. Still, many "Pennsylvania Dutch" began moving from Western Pennsylvania into lands available in Western Maryland over the mid to late 1700s. Many of these German speaking Palantines were born in Pennsylvania, meaning they were not technically foreign immigrants. But they did continue to use the German language and did not easily assimilate into the English speaking culture.<br />
<br />
Farther south, the colonies again adopted many of the immigration restrictions of New England. Virginia barred the immigration of Catholics and Quakers. But many immigrants allowed to enter were not the best sort. England shipped many felons to the colony, including a large number of Irish forced to serve as slaves. Of course, African slaves arrived early on as well. I'm trying to avoid getting side tracked into a discussion of slavery here, but will cover that in another post. I'll only point out here that slavery discouraged many poor free whites from settling in Virginia because of the lack of jobs. Rich whites who had slaves did not need to hire others for much of the menial labor that needed to be done.<br />
<br />
Many of the poor free people who did immigrate were forced to settle further inland, much like the Germans of Pennsylvania and Maryland, to serve as a buffer between the Indians and the richer whites on the coast. Many of these were Scotch-Irish. But the wealthy were not happy about these poorer sorts immigrating. One Virginian commented <i> ''that the people sent to inhabit in Virginia are most of them the scum and off-scouring </i><i>oi the nation, vagrants or condemned persons, or such others as by the looseness and viciousness of their lives have disabled themselves to subsist any longer in England.'' </i><br />
<br />
Because Virginia was very interested in pushing out its western boundaries as far as possible, it needed a great influx of people to settle that land for the colony. In 1705, it offered greater inducements to immigrants<br />
<br />
(a) Every person, male or female, ''imported" and coming into the colony free had the right to 50 acres of land.<br />
(b) Every Christian servant, on becoming free, had the right to 50 acres.<br />
(c) Every person "importing" a wife or children under age had a right to 50 acres for the wife and each child.<br />
(d) A charge of 5s. for every 50 acres was the only fee imposed.<br />
<br />
Despite this desire for immigrants, Virginia passed laws banning the importation of convicts, as well as Catholics. Servants other than those from England or Wales were taxed on importation. These inducements encouraged heavy immigration. But the immigrants did not integrate at first. The best lands along the coast were settled by wealthy land owners from aristocratic families. Inland were Englishmen of less wealthy families. Poorer immigrants who were not slaves or servants to the wealthy families settled in groups well inland and in relatively wild and mountainous areas.<br />
<br />
The Carolinas had policies similar to Virginia, settling wealthy planters and slaves and servants along the coast, and immigrants from other countries further inland. Again, no Catholics were permitted. Most of the immigrants were German and Swiss Palatines, as well as a large influx of French Huguenots (French Protestants kicked out of northern France by the Catholic King),<br />
<br />
So even while the colonies had been desperately trying to increase their numbers, they remained very picky about who they would allow to immigrate. They did permit immigrants from other countries with their own languages and cultures, but generally drew the line on requiring Protestants, in order to avoid the ongoing wars in Europe that had pitted Catholics and Protestants in continual battle for centuries.<br />
<br />
<b>US Immigration</b><br />
<br />
Once the US became an independent nation and established its Constitution, the States handed over all authority for immigration to the Federal Government. Almost right away, fear of the "wrong sort" of immigrants showed up in legislation.<br />
<br />
The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 were passed primarily out of a fear of French Catholics fleeing the French Revolution and spreading their wild revolutionary ideas to America. The Alien Act raised the amount of time an immigrant had to live in the US to vote from five years to fourteen. It also authorized the President to deport any alien considered "<i>dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States". </i>These laws were largely seen as an attempt by the Federalists to prevent immigration that tended to benefit he opposition party, the Democratic-Republicans, headed by Thomas Jefferson. If that was the intent, these laws backfired and resulted in the election of more Democratic-Republicans who repealed the Alien Act in 1802.<br />
<br />
But the Alien Act aside, the Federal Government simply did not concern itself with immigration during the first few decades of the Republic. It did not even both to track who was immigrating. With land and other incentives now gone, and with Napoleonic wars making transatlantic trade difficult, immigrants from Europe (or anywhere else) simply were not coming to America in very large numbers.<br />
<br />
<b>Catholic Immigration and the Reaction</b><br />
<br />
After few decades of low immigration, however, the trends began to change. Between 1820 and 1870, the total number of immigrants to the US exceeded the entire US population in 1810. This was a period of massive immigration, most of which took place in the 1840's and 1850's. Roughly 1/3 of these immigrants were Irish. Another 1/3 were Germans. But unlike earlier immigrants, most of these new Immigrants were Catholics. This caused great concern among the many native Protestants about how American might be changed as a society.<br />
<br />
Irish immigration was primarily the result of the Potato Famine in their home country. Potatoes had become a staple crop in Ireland. When a blight killed off almost all of the crop, and England refused to send in any relief supplies to feed the starving mass of poor people, millions began to starve, many dying from starvation. To avoid this fate about 1.5 million to 2 million Irish came to America. Large coastal cities such as Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, once hostile to Catholics, were now willing to tolerate the immigrants.<br />
<br />
During this same period, a new German immigration grew as well. More than 2 million Germans immigrated to America to escape continuing wars in Europe. Like the Irish, most of the Germans in this wave were Catholic. Most of these immigrants settled in the mid-west.<br />
<br />
Many Mexican Catholics also became Americans during this period. But not because they crossed the US border. The border crossed them. The US acquired a huge part of Mexico, between what is today Texas and California, bringing a great many Spanish speaking Catholics into the United States.<br />
<br />
Americans reacted to this wave of immigration with some alarm. A new political party formed called the "American Party" based on being anti-Catholic and anti-Immigrant. The party was rather secret about its membership. A party member if asked about the Party was supposed to respond by saying "I know nothing". As a result, the Party was nicknamed the "Know Nothing" Party.<br />
<br />
Many of the anti-immigrant writings of the time sound very similar to the arguments made today: Lyman Beecher was a famous Massachusetts minister, the father of the famous Abolitionist Henry Ward Beecher and author of Uncle Tom's Cabin Harriet Beecher Stowe. He wrote the following in 1835:<br />
<br />
<i>"In the first place, while the language of indiscriminate discourtesy towards immigrants, calculated to wound their feelings, and cast odium on respectable and industrious foreigners, is carefully to be avoided ; an immediate and energetic supervision of our government is demanded to check the influx of immigrant paupers, thrown upon our shores by the governments of Europe, corrupting our morals, quadrupling our taxation, and endangering the peace of our cities, and of our nation. </i><br />
<i><br /></i>
<i>It is equally plain, also, that while we admit the population of Europe to a participation in the blessings of our institutions and ample territory, it is both our right and duty so to regulate the influx and the conditions of naturalization, that the increase shall not outrun the possibility of intellectual and moral culture, and the unregulated action of the European population bring down destruction on ourselves and them."</i><br />
<br />
<a href="https://archive.org/details/pleaforwest00beec">A plea for the West</a>, Lyman Beecher (1835).<br />
<br />
Beecher's book also focused on the dangers of Catholics in particular since they were essentially stooges of the Pope and clergy back in Europe, who would tell them how to vote and would destroy democracy in America. His fear was that Catholic immigrants would dominate western States which did not yet have the good Protestant built infrastructure to guide new immigrants in the American way of life. Therefore, immigration to these areas should be greatly limited until Protestant Americans could develop the government and institutions necessary to move Catholic immigrants into a more Protestant way of life.<br />
<br />
Others shared a view that Catholic immigration was part of a larger conspiracy by the Church to take control of the US. The immigrants themselves were seen largely as dupes, unaware of the larger plot, but nevertheless a danger.<br />
<br />
<i>"I readily concede that there has been, and are now, many true patriots among this sect [Catholocism], many estimable men of sound political views, sincere in supporting the democratic institutions of the country ; but making the most ample allowance, they are but exceptions to the rule. The sect, as a sect, is still justly chargeable with the tendency of its acknowledged principles. If a Roman Catholic in the United States is a Democratic Republican, it is so in spite of, and in opposition to, the system of his church, and not in accordance with it. To the truth of this fact, the arguments of Schlegel, a Catholic, and the profoundest investigator of the subject in the present age, are unanswerably conclusive. From their principles of passive obedience, and the denial of the right of private judgment alone, Roman Catholics, as a sect, must be ignorant and willing slaves to the schemes of any despotic ecclesiastic that a foreign povjer may see fit to send to this country to rule over them. The secret plans, the real designs of the Jesuits may be confined to few bosoms, it is by no means necessary that the mass of the sect should have any knowledge of the plot for from the nature of their system they may be blind instruments of the few."</i><br />
<br />
<a href="https://archive.org/details/foreignconspiracy00mors">Foreign Conspiracy Against the Liberties of the United States</a> by Samuel Morse (1841).<br />
<br />
There were a number of anti-Catholic riots in various cities during this period. Immigrants were beaten or lynched. Catholic Churches were burned. One of the more famous riots was the burning of the Ursuline Convent near Boston in 1834. This riot was inspired by several sermons by Rev. Lyman Beecher, the author quoted above. Of course, Beecher did not participate in the riot and condemned it after the fact. Jobs and neighborhoods also remained highly segregated. <br />
<br />
The anti-immigrant movement and violence began to subside the 1850's. National issues turned more toward slavery and abolition and away from immigration. Although immigration continued to increase in the 1850's most Americans realized after living with these new Catholic immigrants for several decades was not going to destroy the country. Anti-immigrant sentiment and violence remained, but not at the levels of the 1830's and 1840's.<br />
<br />
Anti-Catholic sentiment, however, continued in legislation for decades to come. Congress proposed a Constitutional Amendment: <i>"No State shall make any law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; and no money raised by taxation in any State for the support of public schools, or derived from any public fund therefor, nor any public lands devoted thereto, shall ever be under the control of any religious sect; nor shall any money so raised or lands so devoted be divided between religious sects or denominations"</i><br />
<br />
The "Blaine Amendment" named for Con. James Blaine who proposed it, failed to reach the necessary 2/3 vote in the Senate. However, a great many States added similar amendments to their State Constitutions, many of which remain to this day. <br />
<br />
One may recognize the first sentence as being taken from the First Amendment. Why repeat that right? Because at the time, the Courts had only applied the First Amendment to the Federal Government. The Courts did not decide those restrictions applied to the States until the early 20th Century. States at this time were free to have whatever religious laws they liked..<br />
<br />
While couched in neutral terms, the Amendment in the context of its time was clearly aimed at the Catholic Church. During this time, Catholics were upset at the Protestant religious instruction in public schools and wished to create Catholic schools that would receive State funding under the same terms as the "public schools" which taught Protestant religious practices. When the US was overwhelmingly Protestant, teaching generic Protestant religious ideas in school was not controversial. But as Catholics became a larger part of the population and objected, the need to extend the Separation of Church and State to the schools became the popular solution to end or at least limit the controversy.<br />
<br />
While this wave of immigration brought changes, Americans grew to accept them over time. There was violence and resistance, but it was during this period that the US began to think of high immigration as the norm and that the idea of a melting pot of immigrants making American a larger and more powerful nation took hold.<br />
<br />
<b>Industrial Revolution Immigration</b><br />
<br />
The Civil War and the economic slow down of Reconstruction greatly reduced immigration for a time. But when the Industrial Revolution began to demand more laborers, immigration filled that need. Another wave of Irish Immigration began in the 1870s and 1880s. Since these new immigrants were not terribly different from those who had arrived a generation earlier, they were not met with quite as much hostility. Still Irish immigrants tended to live in segregated areas and had to work in some of the worst jobs.<br />
<br />
The larger numbers of immigrants from northern Europe and Protestant countries continued as well, but with little controversy. New immigrant groups began to appear in large numbers, including Eastern Europeans and Russians, many of whom were Jews. Also Italian Catholics began in immigrate in large numbers. Most of these new immigrants settled in large northern cities, finding work in the many factories and new industries that needed labor.<br />
<br />
By this time, most Americans had gotten used to the idea that the US was a nation of immigrants. But there remained hostility. A newly reformed Ku Klux Klan developed with a major focus on opposing immigration, especially Jewish and Catholic immigrants. This new KKK became rather popular, with over five million members. It elected many politicians, judges, and other government officials that made life difficult for the new immigrants. Aside from advocating racial segregation (considered legal and widely practiced as the time) the KKK was a strong proponent of greater restrictions on immigration, gained a powerful dislike of Catholics and Jews (who again were mostly immigrants), and supported a growing temperance movement - which tended to find its highest support among Protestants, and greatest opposition among Catholics.<br />
<br />
Also now that the US had taken control of the West coast, a concern over the rise of Chinese Immigrants grew. The first major Chinese immigration took place in the 1850's with the California Gold Rush. Restrictions at the time did not allow Chinese immigrants to bring their wives or children. So many returned after a time, or died in the US without children, thus limiting any growth of influence. In 1882 the US passed the Chinese Exclusion Act which even more severely restricted any Chinese or other Asian immigration.<br />
<br />
In the 1920's Congress passed a series of laws that greatly reduced the total number of immigrants that could enter the country each year. Even more significantly, there were quotas put on the number of immigrants that could enter from any country, based largely on what percentage of Americans came from that country originally. As such, it was very easy for someone from England, Germany, or Ireland, to immigrate. But immigrants from countries without a long history of movement to the US found it nearly impossible.<br />
<br />
These new laws led to a severe drop in immigration. During the first decade of the 20th Century, over 8 million immigrants came to the US. That number began to drop precipitously in each following decade so that less than a million came in the 1930's. The drop in the 1930's was in part due to the Great Depression, but it was a trend was already dropping, only about 4 million arriving int he 1920's.<br />
<br />
<b>Post WWII Immigration</b><br />
<br />
These new laws, combined with the Great Depression and WWII again created a period of reduced immigration to America. In the post-war era, demand for immigration remained, but the national quotas remained in place until 1965. As a result, illegal immigration, particularly from Mexico, grew significantly. By this time, the argument was focused less on blatantly racist arguments and more on the economic ones. Mexican workers were pushing down wages by competing for jobs with American born workers. <br />
<br />
In 1954 President Eisenhower appointed General Joseph Swing to head the Immigration and Naturalization Service. Shortly thereafter, the shockingly named “Operation Wetback” was launched. Border Patrol agents for the first time began catching large numbers of illegal aliens were and sending them back to Mexico. The efforts were largely successful, with illegal immigration dropping 95% by the end of the 1950s.<br />
<br />
The system, however, was in desperate need of reform. In 1965, Congress abolished the national quotas and greatly increased the overall number of immigrants who could enter each year. Immigrant applicants were given priority based on the following priority list:<br />
<br />
1. Unmarried adult sons and daughters of U.S. citizens.<br />
2. Spouses and children and unmarried sons and daughters of permanent resident aliens.<br />
3. Members of the professions and scientists and artists of exceptional ability.<br />
4. Married children of U.S. citizens.<br />
5. Brothers and sisters of U.S. citizens over age twenty-one.<br />
6. Skilled and unskilled workers in occupations for which there is insufficient labor supply.<br />
7. Refugees given conditional entry or adjustment — chiefly people from Communist countries and the Middle East.<br />
8. Applicants not entitled to preceding preferences — i.e., everyone else.<br />
<br />
Over time, this led to a greater increase in Asian and Latin American Immigrants, but still not nearly enough to meet demand, particularly for Latin American Applicants. Levels of illegal immigration continued to grow.<br />
<br />
A few tweaks were made in the 1970's and early 80's to the system, but the next major change came with the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986. This law, signed by President Reagan, gave amnesty to virtually all of the millions of illegal aliens residing in the US. But it also for the first time made it a crime for an American to hire an illegal alien. Up until then, only the government was responsible for tracking the immigration status of those entering the US. If caught, they could be deported, but there had been no obligation for employers to confirm the immigration status of employees. Under the new law, failure to do so could subject the American employer to legal liability for hiring an illegal alien.<br />
<br />
<b>Thoughts on Current Immigration Controversy</b><br />
<br />
Today immigration remains a divisive issue. Despite the great restrictions on illegal immigrants, many people, particularly from Latin America, enter the country illegally in search of a better life. With the restrictions on employers, most work in an underground cash economy, with the related danger and instability.<br />
<br />
Opponents of immigration generally do not oppose all immigration. It is generally couched in terms of legal vs. illegal immigration. The government must be able to regulate the flow of immigration. But the reasons to have immigration laws at all are the same arguments that have been made historically. Benjamin Franklin's fears that German speaking immigrants might cause Pennsylvania to lose its Anglican character are similar to modern fears levied against today's large numbers of Spanish speaking immigrants. Lyman Beecher's fears that immigrants would increase taxes for social services for the poor, ill educated, and morally corrupt immigrants are heard in anti-immigrant arguments today as well. Fears of Catholics fundamentally changing the American character are today levied against Muslim immigrants.<br />
<br />
The truth, of course, is that immigrants do change the nature of our society. The US is very different today than it was 200 or 300 years ago. The Puritans of Boston once barred Catholic Immigrants and rioted against the Irish. Today, there are more people of Irish Catholic descent living in the greater Boston area than live in all of Ireland. Much of modern American cuisine, arts, literature, fashion, religion, etc. has been greatly impacted by repeated waves of immigration.<br />
<br />
With each group that arrived, there was some apprehension, resistance, and even violence. With every new wave, opponents of immigration said, this time it is different. This time the immigrants would be a negative rather than a positive. Sometimes immigration can overwhelm an area. The American Indians probably feel this way. Mexico once welcomed American immigrants into Texas and ended up losing part of its nation as a result. Such is an unlikely result in the US since the immigrants would have to come from a more powerful country. In today's world, that simply does not exist.<br />
<br />
Much of societal change is also due to changes in the economy, science, technology, etc. Immigrants, contributed to those advances as well. The rate of change in the US is much different than if one compares the same time period in a large country that has not seen a great deal of immigration, like say India. Some change, is inevitable in all countries, but immigration accelerates it. Some people fear that change. Others embrace it.<br />
<br />
There is little demand today for immigrant labor as there was when we were expanding the country across the continent or feeding the demand of the Industrial Revolution. Further, because the US has established a social welfare system that attempts to create a minimum standard of living, there is a greater fear that poor uneducated immigrants will create more cost to those already here than they will add. As a result, the immigration rate as a percentage of the population is much lower today than it was a century ago, or two centuries ago. <br />
<br />
Perhaps it is true that the rate of growth over the last two centuries could not continue. But how that change will affect the growth of American wealth, power, and influence remains to be seen.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://unlearnedhistory.podomatic.com/entry/2016-09-17T11_01_11-07_00" target="_blank">Listen to Part 1 of this episode as a podcast</a>.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://unlearnedhistory.podomatic.com/entry/2016-09-25T10_29_37-07_00" target="_blank">Listen to Part 2 of this episode as a podcast.</a><br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7424973947646705706.post-64197856186827011512015-07-18T07:47:00.001-04:002016-09-11T12:30:30.983-04:00George Washington, Indispensable indeed<br />
Listen to a <a href="http://unlearnedhistory.podomatic.com/entry/2016-09-11T09_26_37-07_00" target="_blank">Podcast</a> of this Episode.<br />
<br />
When one thinks of famous American historical figures, George Washington is probably one of the first that comes to mind. There are innumerable cities and counties named after him, not to mention the nation's capital and one of its States. He shows up on our money, has a place on Mount Rushmore, as well as a giant monument in DC. He is known as the "father of our country" and praised as being "first in war, first in peace, first in the hearts of his countrymen."<br />
<br />
Given that the American Revolution and the founding of the Republic were mass movements involving many people, does Washington really deserve to stand out for the special recognition that he gets? I argue yes, his deeds really do live up to all the hype.<br />
<br />
<b>Washington's Weaknesses</b><br />
<br />
First though, I'd like to point out what George Washington was not.<br />
<ul>
<li>He was not a particularly good orator. He had a reputation for remaining silent in Congress or at other political events. </li>
<li>He was not a particularly good battlefield tactician. He lost almost all of the battles in which he fought. His battle plans were often unrealistic and impossibly complicated, His subordinates often had to talk him out of crazy schemes of attack that almost certainly would have been suicide. </li>
<li>He certainly was not a man of the people. He remained aloof from most of his own officers and soldiers, as well as political colleagues. He saw no problem having living conditions much better than his soldiers in the field. </li>
<li>He was not a strong political leader. President Washington typically ceded to Congress in setting policy. What did come out of his Administration was the work of his talented Cabinet members. </li>
</ul>
<b>Washington's Assets</b><br />
<br />
Despite these limitations, however, George Washington was an amazing man. His personal bravery in battle was legendary. Like many great officers of the time, Washington seemed to be able to ignore gunfire all around him, standing unconcerned in the midst of a firefight. At the time, most weapons were terribly inaccurate, so being hit was largely a matter of chance anyway. But Washington had no compunctions about riding into a firefight to rally his men, or trying to prevent a retreat.<br />
<br />
Washington also had great personal integrity. After losing a number of important battles in 1776 and 1777, many in the Army, in Congress, and in the public generally, thought Washington incompetent and in need of replacement. The Continental Army had several professional officers, including Gen. Charles Lee, who had served in the British Army before the war. There was a serious movement to replace Washington, who refused to defend his actions in the press or even in most conversations. Typically, he would not second guess or publicly criticize the mistakes of his subordinates, even those gunning for his job. He let his actions speak for him, and was willing to accept any Congressional decision to replace him.<br />
<br />
This is not to say he was never critical. Washington gave his would-be replacement Charles Lee a prominent command at the Battle of Monmouth in 1778. A great victory might have convinced Congress to give Lee overall command. But Lee almost immediately began a retreat after seeing the enemy. When Washington rode onto the field and saw the retreat, he lost his temper and berated Lee for his cowardice and incompetence (something he almost never did). Washington took direct control of the soldiers and led a successful attack.<br />
<br />
Washington was a strict disciplinarian. He was not afraid to court marshal officers who shirked their duty or to have soldiers flogged or even executed for bad behavior or desertion. He demanded his army respect civilian rights and property and that they treat prisoners with respect and basic humanity. Violations of these rules were subject to strict punishments.<br />
<br />
Washington's many good qualities made the nearly impossible victory of the Revolution possible. It is hard to imagine many other leaders acting as he did. After military success, many expected the Revolution to go the way of many earlier wars where the army finally tires of incompetent politicians and overthrows the government. That is how Oliver Cromwell came to control Britain over a century earlier. It is also how Caesar famously took control of Rome. Washington looked at these historic examples and saw the need to make clear that Congress remained the supreme leader. Washington's army would always defer to Congress, despite its great incompetence in many areas.<br />
<br />
There are many wonderful biographies of George Washington that go into this in far more detail. For this post, I would like to focus on just two events that could have taken history in a far different direction without the leadership of General Washington.<br />
<br />
<b>Washington's Crossing of the Delaware</b><br />
<br />
The first event is generally well known: Washington's famous crossing of the Delaware. In August 1776, The British invaded New York City. They easily chased Washington's army through New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. Washington attempted to stop the British advance by destroying every boat he could find along the Delaware river. The British settled into winter quarters, convincing most citizens of New York and New Jersey to declare loyalty to the King in exchange for a pardon for their previous treason. Many quickly agreed. It seemed clear that a spring campaign would allow the British to move into Philadelphia (where Congress was seated) and take control. Many people thought this insurrection was pretty much over, and mostly wanted to avoid being hanged for treason at this point.<br />
<br />
Even most of Washington's army was ready to go home. They had not just been beaten, but terribly routed in the battle of New York. The British humiliated the Americans by blowing hunting calls on their bugles. The implication being that it was not a real battle. It was a fox hunt, and the Americans were the foxes. Most of the terms of enlistment for his army ended on January 1, only a week away. Since the War seemed clearly lost, there seemed little chance that many would reenlist. In short, The Continental soldiers would all become civilians again and Washington would be left with nothing.<br />
<br />
It was in this desperate context that Washington's officers finally agreed to one of his many crazy schemes to attack the enemy. The Continental Army would attempt to cross the Delaware River, filled with dangerous ice flows, at night. This would be a coordinated crossing from three different locations, after which the starving and barefoot soldiers would march through the snowy night to surprise the Hessian soldiers at Trenton, somehow synchronizing this three pronged night attack with little, if any, communication between the different prongs. The crossing would take place on the evening of December 25, Christmas Day, with the attack scheduled for the following morning.<br />
<br />
Like most of Washington's hopelessly complex and demanding strategies, this one fell apart almost from the beginning. Terrible weather forced two of the three crossings to be called off. Only the one directly under Washington's supervision succeeded. Even that one took hours longer than planned. It was already 4:00 AM by the time the army was across the river and could even begin the nine mile march to Trenton. A surprise night attack would now be impossible. In addition, powder was getting wet from the storm. It was unclear if their guns would even work when they arrived for battle.<br />
<br />
Washington received word that the two other crossings had failed, meaning he only had a portion of his planned force. Still, Washington pressed on. The password selected for the night was "victory or death." This was quite literal in the sense that if this attack failed, it would be the end of the Continental Army. I think Washington would have preferred to die in the field rather than see that happen.<br />
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Things continued to get worse. The army struggled to travel the necessary distance. Two soldiers died from exposure as a result of the difficult march. Even worse, just before reaching the enemy garrison, the army encountered a group of 50 local patriot militia who had just conducted a raid on the enemy post. Washington was devastated. Now the enemy would be on alert and the critical factor of surprise was certainly lost. Still Washington had no choice but to continue.<br />
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It turned out that several bad tidings ended up cancelling each other out. The delayed start allowed local Tory spies to alert the enemy to the attack. However, when the militia raid struck and then fled, the Hessians believed that was the attack about which they had been warned and let down their guard. They had been receiving such warnings for weeks. Given the terrible weather, they saw little chance of any serious attack coming.As a result, Washington was able to carry out the raid as a surprise and capture over 1000 prisoners.<br />
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Many leaders would have considered the raid a great success and returned home But Washington decided to roll the dice again. After bringing his army and prisoners back to Pennsylvania, Washington crossed the Delaware into NJ a second time to meet a force of 8000 British Regulars led by Gen. Cornwallis to counter the American raid.<br />
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Remember, most of Washington's Army had their enlistment's expire at the end of the year. This second attack began on January 1. Washington first offered the men a $10 bonus to stay with the army for just one more month. Since monthly pay as $6 per month, this was not an insignificant amount. But not a single man stepped forward to continue. No amount of money was worth the misery and suffering of continuing this winter campaign without the necessary food or clothing. Then Washington, never much of a speaker, made an impassioned plea to the men. <i>"My brave fellows, you have done all I asked you to do, and more than could be reasonably expected; but your country is at stake, your wives, your houses and all that you hold dear. You have worn yourselves out with fatigues and hardships, but we know not how to spare you. If you will consent to stay only one month longer, you will render that service to the cause of liberty and to your country which you probably never can do under any other circumstances."</i> At first there was a pause, but slowly the bulk of his army agreed to continue for another month.<br />
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Washington and his army determined that they would meet the advancing British force at Trenton and set up defensive lines. After the first day of skirmishing, however, it became clear, however that the large and well prepared British force would be able to flank the American lines and cut off any possible retreat back to the Delaware River. The British set up camp that evening within sight of the Continental Army on the other side of a small creek. Washington decided a direct battle could be disastrous, so he changed plans. Washington left a few dozen men in camp to keep fires stoked and make as much noise as possible. While the British army heard what they thought was the entire Continental Army in camp, Washington took his men on a back trail to Princeton where he attacked a British reserve force of about 1200 men, killing about 200 and taking another 300 prisoner. Perhaps more importantly, the Continental Army was able to capture the British supply wagons, providing his men with a great many needed supplies. Washington then pulled his Army up to North NJ to await the next British movement. <br />
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By this time, the British saw the futility of chasing the Americans around NJ. They never wanted a winter campaign at all. The Commanding General Howe ordered Cornwallis to pull back all British troops to Northern NJ near New York City where they stayed in camp for the winter.<br />
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These actions were relatively minor victories but were absolutely critical to keeping the American cause alive. It proved that the Continental Army could defeat the British. Not any leader would have made such a daring attack, especially when the plans seemed to fall apart during the march on the enemy. Not any commander would have dared to face the British a second time or had the good sense to retreat and then attack the reserve force when a frontal assault likely would have proved fatal. There was unquestionably a great amount of luck in pulling off the whole campaign, but a good commander knows when to take such chances. Truly, Washington was indispensable to the success of this critical campaign.<br />
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<b>Newburgh Address</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
The second incident that made Washington indispensable to the success of the Revolution is less well known. Two years after the battle of Yorktown, in 1783, Britain and the US were still trying to work out a treaty that would end the war. British troops still occupied New York City, but were making no attempts at offensive actions. Washington's Continental Army camped a few miles away in Newburgh, NY just in case the British attempted anything. For the most part, camp life was quiet, settled, and routine. Everyone realized the War was coming to an end.<br />
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The Continental Army was not in a celebratory mood, however. The Confederation Congress, which did not have the power to tax, could not raise any money to pay the soldiers. Soldiers were ill clad, ill fed, and unpaid. Even worse, they had been promised generous pensions or other bonuses when Congress desperately needed them to remain with the Army. Now that it came time to pay and the army was not needed as badly, Congress looked as if it would break all of its promises to the soldiers.<br />
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Officers had sent multiple petitions to Congress begging that it keep its promises. But these fell on deaf ears. While soldiers suffered from deprivation in the field, civilians were beginning to thrive in the peacetime economy. Those who had sacrificed for their country were justifiably upset at their treatment.<br />
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On March 10, 1783 an anonymous letter circulated through the Army calling for a meeting to demand action. The topic was to discuss having the Army march on Philadelphia and demand their promised pay and benefits, at gun point if necessary. There was also talk of replacing the incompetent Congress with a military leader, preferably Washington, to take charge of the country, much like General Oliver Cromwell had kicked out Parliament and become Lord Protector of England a century earlier after the English Civil War.<br />
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Washington put out an announcement objecting to an anonymous meeting and instead allowed a meeting of officers to be scheduled on March 15. No one expected Washington to participate in this meeting where essentially treason against Congress would presumably be discussed. But Washington walked in unexpectedly and asked to address the officers. He gave a short speech recommending continued patience. He said they should oppose anyone <i>"who wickedly attempts to open the floodgates of civil discord and deluge our rising empire in blood."</i> Despite their long loyalty to Gen. Washington, these officers seemed largely unmoved and unwilling to change their views.<br />
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Washington then produced a letter from a member of Congress to read to the officers. He looked at the letter as if he had trouble reading it, and fumbled with it for some time without speaking. He then took a pair of reading glasses from his pocket. These glasses were new, and few of the men had seen him wear them. He paused, looked to the gathered officers and said: <i>"Gentlemen, you will permit me to put on my spectacles, for I have not only grown gray but almost blind in the service of my country." </i> Almost at once this changed the tone of the meeting.<br />
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The officers at once understood that their leader Washington had personally sacrificed a great deal for the Revolution, just as much as any of them. Many of those present were moved to weep openly. Despite all that sacrifices that Washington and the rest of his men were forced to make, Washington continued to remain loyal to Congress and would submit to its will. The movement to use any force against Congress ended immediately. The assembly drafted a resolution expressing <i>"unshaken confidence" </i>in Congress, and <i>"disdain"</i> and <i>"abhorrence"</i> for the proposals published earlier in the week.<br />
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Almost all successful revolutions end up devolving power onto a military strong man. New revolutionary governments are almost by nature weak and disorganized. The chaos and anarchy of overthrowing the established order could make even basic government functions difficult. Typically a single strong man or dictator assumes power in order to make everything work properly. These tend to be military leaders: Oliver Cromwell or Napoleon Bonaparte are two examples. George Washington easily could have stepped into this role. The army was totally loyal to him and had nothing but contempt for the Congress. With the army's support, no one could have prevented Washington from taking control.<br />
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Washington, however, vehemently opposed any such action. In doing so he helped to ensure the successful transition to a civilian republican government. We take that for granted today, but at the time it could have so easily gone a different way. Washington's steadfast loyalty to civilian control of the government may be one of his least mentioned qualities, but one that makes him a uniquely great leader.<br />
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<b>Conclusion</b><br />
<b><br /></b>
Without George Washington, it is impossible to see how the Continental Army could have been guided to its ultimate success against the British Empire. It is also very easy to see how the successful Army could have moved to a military dictatorship if not for Washington's unflagging devotion to civilian control. Washington, of course, did reluctantly become President years later under the new Constitution. But he genuinely seemed to take on that role reluctantly and only because no one in the country trusted anyone but Washington with that much power. He reluctantly served a second term only because no one at any part of the legal spectrum wanted him to leave. Doing so, it was feared, would only have led to division and possibly even civil war. Finally, after his second term, Washington determined to take his leave and become a simple farmer once again.<br />
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Washington never shirked his duty and willingly gave up power as soon as he could. He viewed power as an obligation rather than a reward. This rare and valuable attitude was essential to the success of the Revolution and the creation of our Constitutional Republic.<br />
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Today we commonly see politicians who want to move beyond their Constitutional authority because they see it as the only way of reaching some desired policy goal. Washington understood the danger of such an attitude and rejected it entirely. He is truly the indispensable man.<br />
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Listen to a <a href="http://unlearnedhistory.podomatic.com/entry/2016-09-11T09_26_37-07_00" target="_blank">Podcast</a> of this Episode.<br />
<br />Michael Troyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/03442115874718729592noreply@blogger.com0